2016 LET TUTORIAL CENTER General Education
GENERAL EDUCATION
English
Filipino
Mathematics
Science
Social Science
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LET Reviewer-ENGLISH LECTURE NOTES MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
The communication process is indeed a paradox. We always communicate with each other, yet defining the process itself seems to be a very difficult task. Language of different historical periods, in their dire attempts to bridge the gap, were able to formulate their own theories to explain the process of communication, Since the linear representation of Aristotle to the complex depiction of modern linguist, we can say that this endeavor has come a long way. Renowned linguist have different points of view about the communication process, and this diversity proves to be the fuel that keeps linguist of today on taking forward steps en route to the better understanding of this process. Two to be discussed in this chapter, each representing the traditional and the contemporary schools of thought as regards communication. Berio’s representation, being the most widely cited and extensively use model, will be discussed to explain in the basic components of the communication cycle, while the Dance Helix model will be clarified to give a fresh and novel perspective on the practice of other long-standing theories. Berios’Model David Berios’s paradigm of the communication process is considered one of the most recognizable representations. It has four major components: source, receiver, message, and the channel. That is why at times this model is also called SMRC.
SOURCE
MESSAGE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS ATTITUDES KNOWLEDGE SOCIAL SYSTEM CULTURE
CONTENT TREATMENT CODE
RECEIVER CHANNEL
COMMUNICATION SKILLS ATTITUDES KNOWLEDGE SOCIAL SYSTEM CULTURE
SEEING HEARING TOUCHING SMELLING TASTING
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SMRC’s linearity is oftentimes criticized, but Berio’s elucidations regarding the significance of each component redeem it all. According to him, the interlocutors’ ( source and receiver) , and attitude are communication skills, knowledge, socio-cultural system, and attitude are important for successful communication to take place ( Berio, 1960). For example, if the source has a higher level of language proficiency compared to the receiver, or vice versa, then problems are expected. Refer to the sample conversation below and then try, to figure out what caused the lapse in communication. Conversation Sample Setting: Jakarta International Airport Immigration Counter Situation: The immigration officer is interviewing a tourist about the latter’s whereabouts. Specifications: The immigration officer is a native speaker, while tourist is a beginner learning of English language. Immigration Officer: Good morning, Miss! May I know your travel itinerary? Tourist: Uhh….sory. What is that again? Immigration Officer: oh, I mean… where do you plan to go? Tourist: Oh, I see. Actually I plan to go to the Metropolitan Museum and to the Museum of Modern Art, and maybe stay for another two days in New York City before flying to Florida. Immigration officer: Okay. Welcome to America. Enjoy your vacation! In the sample conversation above, the difference between the proficiencies of the interlocutors led to lapses in communication. It is also noticeable that success of the process relies largely on the one who has higher proficiency. Since the tourist has limited vocabulary (being a beginner), the immigration officer paraphrased the statement to fit the level of the tourist. Discrepancy between knowledge of the interlocutors also poses great treat. Read the sample conversation below and try to cite some reasons for the communication breakdown. Conversation Sample Setting: Computer repair shop Situation: One client wants to have her laptop fixed. Specifications: Both the client and the technician have the same language of proficiency. Client: Good morning! May I ask why my laptop shouts down automatically just right after turning it on? Technician: Okay, let me see it.
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Client: So what do you think? Technician: I think your laptop has been infected by Trojans and worms… Client: Huh? Trojans? Worms? Technician: Yes. By the way, do you do defragmentation every once in a while? Doing so greatly helps the performance of your computer. Client: Huh? What is that again? Defragment…what? Technician : Defragmentation. Anyway, to fix your laptop, I will just rebot and reformat everything, is that ok with you? Client: I am not really familiar with you are saying. So fix it and send me the Bill Ok? In conversation above, the technician uses jargon exclusive to those who are adept in the computers and information technology. For someone who is not really into the technicians of computer software and hardware nomenclature, understanding what the technician is saying poses great difficulty that can later on lead to communication breakdown. English Language Learning Learning the English language circles around the Three Sets of Four, and below is a table that summarizes these sets.
MACRO SKILLS Learning Speaking Reading Writing
CUEING SYSTEMS Phonology Morphology Semantics Syntax
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCIES Grammatical Discourse Sociolinguistic Strategic
THE FOUR CUEING SYSTEMS CUEING SYSTEM Phonology Morphology
Definition Pertains to the sounds of language Pertains to formation of words Types of morphemes Bound morpheme ( dependent) Free morpheme (independent)
Semantics Syntax
Pertains to meaning derivation Grammar, structure, and form of the language
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LISTENING
Experts say that listening is the first language skill that students learn. If we are to think about it, this claim may be true. Upon hearing things, the one can speak-just like how we learned our first utterances. Parents keep on repeating words until the babies initiate and repeat the utterances successfully ( behaviorist). But is listening as easy as it may sound?
The Listening Process
Receiving
Decoding
Retaining
Comprehending
Reacting
Selecting
Interpreting
Responding
The receiving of the message from the source signals is the start of listening process. The listener, then, will decode the message and select important parts of the message that will help the listener in interpreting it. Based on the interpretation, the receiver now comprehends the message and retains information needed for him to react and respond. Kinds of Listening Interactional/ Emphatic Listening This type of listening is very common at times done in an informal setting. This happens when persons listen to each other for the purpose of communicating and empathizing. At times, the aim of this type of listening is to accomplish tasks or to come up with something. In classroom setting, this is when students listen to each other for them to able to accomplish given tasks and activities.
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Transactional/Critical Listening In this type of listening, the listener is concerned with acquiring new knowledge for the purpose of improving his skill in generalizing and decision making. In a classroom setting, this is when the students listen to their teacher to gain more knowledge
THREE MODELS OF LISTENING Joan Morely in her essay “Aural Comprehension, instruction: principles and Practices” made mention of the three modes of listening, namely: Undirectional, Birectional, and Autodirectional. Undirectional Bidirectional Autodirectional
If the listener cannot respond to the things he/she heard If the listening process is reciprocal-meaning, two way ( indicated by prefix “bi”) If the listening process is reflexive-meaning, the speaker this is intrapersonal listening
SPEAKING Language and language learning developed as fast as civilization. In the olden times, man used language merely for survival-now, language functions as one important medium of change and innovation. But the question still remains… what is language? Language was defined by Webster as the expression and communication of emotions or ides between human beings by means of speech and hearing that is systematized and confirmed by usage among a given people over a period of time. If we are to look a Webster’s definition can infer that there are only two functions of language. The first one is to express how one feels ( emotions); and the second one is to express how one thinks (ideas). He also mentioned two important factors of language speaking (speech) and listening (hearing). The two word systematized in Webster’s definition can also be related to grammar-meaning it follows certain rules and systems, and lastly, he also mentioned”period of time”, which can be interpreted as the changes language goes through with me. Webster’s definition is in line with the structurist’s. For them language follows a system-meaning, one cannot just mix letters to form words. X,Y, K, and D cannot be combined to form a meaningful word-well, at least in English. In the sentence” she is pretty,”it will be erroneous if one will change “is” to “are”. These instances are the bases of the structurist in saying that language is a system. They also believes that language is primary vocal, is another claim of the structurists. For them, and other Webster, speaking and listening are important language skills. They also adhere to the concept that language is arbitrary. For them, language constantly goes through series of innovations developments, and changes. The word “thee”, “thou”, “growist”, and hath” are no longer used today. This is one proof that language, just as other things, constantly changes. The cognitivist, however, believe that language is a mental phenomena. For them, language learning is innate in the individual. According to them, there is one part in our brain called LAD (language acquisition device) that is responsible for language acquisition. If we are to analyze their definition, we can infer that language (for 6
them) is not learned but acquired. The difference of learning from acquiring is that learning is voluntary while acquiring is involuntary. We choose to learn, but we no choice what to acquire. We acquire traits from our parents, but we learn how to solve math problems. The functionalist have rather functional definition about language. For them language performs specific functions, such as to express, to persuade, to give or ask information, and to make someone to do something. Most people will agree with this definition, because practically these functions are what language is really for. The behaviorists also have their own definition of language. For them, language is learned through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. If a teacher teaching grade one pupils will ask her students to say word the she does, then pupils learned( imitation). If the teacher will ask the same pupils to repeat saying the world over and over again, then the pupil will be punished. On the other hand, if the pupil were able to say it correctly, then he/she will receive a prize. Given the two instances above, then the pupils learned ( reinforcement) THE SEGMENTALS According to the structurist, language is primarily vocal, but the question is-how to speak properly? Is it merely opening and closing the mouth? Or is there a complex process that guides speech production? In this action, you will know how the speech mechanism works. The Family of Consonant Sounds Consonant sounds can be classified according to the three dimensions: the place of articulation (where the sounds is made), the manner of articulation (how the sounds is made), and voicing (voiceless or voiced). Manner of Articulation Stops/Plosives These are sounds produced when the air stream is compressed and passes through a small creating friction. The sounds F,V,S,Z,H,TH ( voiced) and voiceless), Sh Zh, are the members of this group.
Affricates These are sounds produced when a plosive is followed by a fricative. Ts ( Ch), and Dz (J) are the members of this group. Nasals Nasal sounds are produced when the oral cavity is blocked, and so the air passes through the nose. N, M, and Ng are nasal sounds. Liquid/Lateral Sounds are produced when air stream moves around the tongue in an unobstructed manner. Sounds like L and R are examples. Glides 7
Glides are sounds that are close to vowel sounds, like W and Y. Point of Articulation Bilabial Labio Dental Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Two lips touching each other Lower lips touches upper teeth Tip of the tongue and the inner edge of the upper teeth Tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge The tongue and hard palate Dorsal tongue and soft palate Throat passage
Voiced or Voiceless A sound is voiced if the vocal cords vibrate, whereas a sound is voiceless if the vocal cords are not vibrating upon the production of sounds. Consonant Chart
Place of Articulation Manner Bilabial Stop Fricative
Affricate Nasal Loud Glide
Labio Dental
Dental
FV
Th (voiced and voiceless
Alveolar
Palatal
TD SZ
SH ZH
Velar
Glottal
KG H
TS DZ M
N L
W
NG R Y
VOWELS Vowels sounds are produced with one’s mouth open. It is also a fact that all vowel sounds are voiced sounds can be classified according to the height of the tongue and jaw, and the way the mouth opens. Vowel sounds can be classified as SPREAD, ROUND, OR NEUTRAL.
SPREAD 8
/i/ /l/ /e/ /E/ /ae)
Long/i/sound as in “phoenix” and “beat” Short /l/ sound as in “bit”, “captain”, “pin”, and “maariage” Soft /e/ sound as in “hate”, “mate”, “grape”, and “gate” Hard /E/ sound as in “let”, “set”, “any”, and “ jeopardy” Combination of /a/ and /e/ as in “family”, “man”, “anger”, and “hamburger”
NEUTRAL Unaccented schwa sound as in “towel”, and “America” Accented schwa as in “judge”, and “cup”
/Y/ /^/
ROUND Long /u/ sound as in “balloon”, “soon”, and “pool” Short /U/ sound as in ”pull”, “would”, “push”, and”cook” Complete/o/ sound as in “boat”, “phone”, and”own” The /a/ sound as in” dark”, sergeant”, and “psalm”
/u/ /U/ /o/ /a/
THE SUPRA SEGEMENTALS
Juncture Juncture is defined as the pauses and rests in a given speaking discourse. It is commonly represented by a single slash(/) for short pauses, double slashes (//) for long pauses, and three slashes(///) for rests at the end of the paragraph Pitch This is the highness or lowness of sound Volume This is the loudness or softness of sound Intonation This is the rising and falling sound
Stress This is the placement of emphasis or force on certain words or syllables
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READING Jean Chall, Proposes skills that are essential for real reading to take place. She said that there are five skills that a student must have like. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Phonemic Awareness- being familiar with the sounds of the language Phonics – drawing out the relationship between the symbol and the sound ( graphonemic relationship) Fluency – the ability to blend and mix the sounds to form a meaningful utterance Vocabulary- the ability to attach meaning to words Comprehension- the ability to create and decode meaning from a group of words.
Chall also constructed a matrix of stages of reading development. She states that there are six stages namely:
Stage 0 Pre-Reading Stage In this stage, the students are being exposed to the different sounds of the language. This is the reason why songs, nursery rhymes, and poetry are being read to the students of reading. Automatically in recognizing a particular language is the key in the next stages. The teacher can determine if the students have phonemic awareness if they can name from language the words they hear are from.
Stage 1 Initial Reading Stage In this stage, the students will start to realize the correspondence between the symbol and the sound. For example, upon seeing the symbol M, the students will know that the sound is /m/ as in “mother” Stage 2 Confirmation Stage This stage is deemed to be very crucial in reading development and according to Chall, most will mistake fluency for comprehension. She reiterates that mere verbalization of written text cannot be considered complete reading. Stage 3 Reading to Learn (Academic Reading) The first three stages are considered”learning to read stages” while stage 3 up until stage 5 are “reading to learn stages”. In this particular stage, students must be beyond fluency. They must be able to comprehend what they read because if not, they will have difficulty in learning Stage 4 Multiple Viewpoint Stage and Stage 5 Construction and Judgment Stage After reading a text, if students were able to give their opinions they belong to the fourth stage. On the other hand, if students were able to criticize a particular text, and in turn were able to write their own, they belong to fifth stage Purpose of Reading Skimming- reading to get the main idea Scanning – reading to get specific information Other Purposes of Reading 1. Information searching 2. General comprehending 3. New information learning 10
4. Information evaluating and synthesizing
WRITING The Paragraph The paragraph is defined as a group of unified, coherent, well-developed sentences that are properly and logically organized to support one specific idea or topic. Based on the given definition, we can infer that it is important for a paragraph to have Unity, Coherence, logical Organization, support or Development, proper Emphasis, and one governing and limiting topic sentence- “UCODE TS”
The paragraph Paradigm Based on the diagram below, we can say that a paragraph is unified if all the sentences are about the topic sentence. It has coherence if all the sentences are connected with each other properly and logical and coherent order.
S2 S1
Topic Sentence
S4 GRAMMAR Part of Speech NOUNS 11
S3
A noun names something- person, place, things, events, phenomena, emotions, etc. Kinds of Nouns 1. Proper nouns- names of specific persons, things, or places 2. Common nouns- refer to any one of a class of persons, places, or things 3. Count nouns- nouns that can be counted and quantified using numbers 4. Non count nouns Mass nouns- nouns that cannot be counted and quantified using measurements - Mass nouns, abstract nouns, events, occasions and phenomena are under noon count nouns. 5. Collective nouns- nouns that name a group of persons or things 6. Compound nouns- nouns that are made up of two words acting as a single unit. - Compound nouns may be written as separate words hyphenated words, or combined words.
PRONOUNS Pronouns are words that stand for nouns Kinds of Pronouns 1. Personal pronouns- these are pronouns that refer to the person speaking, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about.
SECOND PERSON
SINGULAR I ( Subjective) ME ( Objective) YOU
PLURAL WE ( Subjective) US ( Objective) YOU
THIRD PERSON
SHE, HE, HER,HIM, IT
THEY ( Subjective) THEM ( Objective)
FIRST PERSON
2.
Possessive pronouns- these are pronouns that show possession
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES MY OUR YOUR THEIR HIS HER ITS
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS MINE OURS YOURS THEIRS HIS HERS
Examples: Possessive Adjective: This is my book ( “my” qualifies the book) Possessive Pronoun: This book is mine. (‘mine” represents the owner of the book)
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3. Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON THIRD PERSON
SINGULAR MYSELF YOURSELF HIMSELF ITSELF ONSLELF
PLURAL OURSELVES YOURSELVES THEMSELVES
Example: REFLEXIVE The pronoun refers to the subject a. I see myself in his actions b. Did you teach yourself? c. He cut the paper himself d. They were shocked about themselves
INTENSIVE The pronoun shows emphasis a. I, myself is the culprit b. You, yourself teach c. He, himself cut the paper d. They themselves were shocked
4. Indefinite Pronouns- do not refer to a specific noun. SINGULAR ANY ,EVERYONE ANYBODY, NO ONE EVERYBODY ANYONE
PLURAL BOTH, SEVERAL FEW MANY
BOTH SINGULAR AND PLURAL NONE ALL SOME
5. Interrogative pronouns- used in asking questions
WHO WHAT WHICH
HOW WHOM WHOSE WHY
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS TO WHOM TO WHAT TO WHICHWHERE WHEN
6. Demonstrative pronouns- used in pointing nouns SINGULAR PLURAL
THIS THESE
THAT THOSE
ADJECTIVES An adjective qualifies and tells something about a NOUN or PRONOUN through descriptions. It answers the questions: What kind? 13
Which one? How many? How much?
Comparison of Adjectives POSITIVE BIG USEFUL ACTIVE BAD
COMPARATIVE BIGGER MORE USEFUL LESS ACTIVE WORSE
SUPERLATIVE BIGGEST MOST USEFUL LEAST ACTIVE WORST
Order of Adjectives Descriptive Adjectives determiner
observation
origin size
An An
age
Expensive Extraiordinary
Six Her My Those That Few Some
shape
Long stemmed shiny
Smooth
Short Big Long Big Tiny
Erotic
color Red
European
White
american
material
qualifier sports
Hair
Black Old
German Ceramic African Indian
noun Car Necklace Daisies
jewelry
gold
Dog Boxes Locket Insects Films
VERBS Oftentimes. Verbs are defined as action words. But reality, verbs are far more than that. Verbs also link ideas in a sentence, help other verbs, and state conditions. We can classify verbs into (1) verbs actions, (2) linking/be verbs, (3) helping verbs, (4) emphatic verbs, and of course, (5) modals. Action Verbs These are verbs that express action. A majority of verbs are of this nature, and that is why most of the time, learners tend to define verbs as action words. Words like run, walk, talk, sing, dance, etc. are common examples of action verbs. We can further classify actions verbs into two more sub classifications-Regular and Irregular verbs.
Regular verbs Action verb is considered regular if its past form is derived by adding d or ed. Let us take the word walk for an example; the past form of walk is walked.
BASE FORM
PAST FORM 14
Watch Bake Pick Save
Watched Baked Picked Saved
Irregular verbs Action verb is considered irregular if its past form is derived not by adding d or ed, but through a change or through retention in spelling.
BASE FORM Pay Put Say write
PAST FORM Paid Put Said Wrote
Linking verbs Linking Verbs as Copula The copula is defined by Celce-Muricia as the link between the subject and non verbal predicates ( nouns, adjectives, and some adverbials). The copula also carries the tense and would determines subject-verb agreement. Examples: She is beautiful---She is a pronoun, and beautiful is an adjective. She is beautiful---She is singular, that is why we used “is” Linking Verbs as Perception Corpulas These are verbs that expresses no action, but at the same time, are not conventional ( is, are, was, were) linking verbs. They are called Perception copulas because they are perceived through the senses ( mental or sensory)
Examples: Appear Smell
Seem Sound
Feel Taste
Look
Linking Verb as State Copulas State copulas are verbs that are not locomotive. They are more of a condition than an action. Examples: Lie Rest
Remain Stand
Linking Verbs as Change of State Copulas These linking verbs do not express instant locomotion or movement. Mostly, these verbs express changes from one state to another. Examples: 15
Become Get Turn
Come Go
Fall Grow
These are also called helping verbs because they always appear with another verb in a sentence ( main verb). Linking verbs such as is, was, were, are considered auxiliary verbs if they appear together with a for a s verb in progressive form. Other helping verbs are has, have, and had. The verb has is used for singular subjects in the present tense. The verb “have” is used for plural subjects in the present tense, and had is used doe both singular and plural subjects in the past tense. Has, have and had, are also considered Auxiliary verbs if they appear in a sentence with another verb( main verb) in the past participal form. Example: She has taken a bath already
the verb”has” functions as an auxiliary
Emphatic Verbs Emphatic verb are used to give certain emphasis. These verbs are do, does, and did. Do is used for plural subjects in the present tense. DOES is used for singular subjects in the present tense, and DID for both plural and singular in the past tense. The verbs, DO,DOES, and DID can also be used as main verbs. They are only considered em phatic verbs if they appear in a sentence with another verb in its base form. Example: She did not drink her milk
----- DID is used as an emphatic verb
Modals According to Celece-Muria, modals are helping verbs that are used to give a proposition. A degree of probability, to express one’s attitude, and to perform various social functions such as expressing politeness or indirectness when making request, giving advice, or grabting permission. It is always couples with a verb on its base form. a. Stating Ability I can do anything b. Expressing Regret I should have loved you c. Giving warning You may be in danger d. Expressing Admission with Reservation I might be wrong, but I know what I did e. Expressing observation You must do this 16
ADVERBS Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or another adverb. Adverb of Manner This answers the question how a thing is done Example: He did the job poorly Question: How did he do the job? Answer: Poorly Adverb of Time This answers the question when the action happened Example: He will go there tomorrow Question: When will he go there? Answer: Tomorrow
Adverb of Frequency This answers the question how often Example: She is there every week Question: how frequent is she there? Answer: every week PREPOSITION A preposition links words with a sentence. It also states how two separate things are related. A preposition may indicate a location, direction, possession, or cause. Common Prepositions In front of In regard to Inside In spite of Into
About Above Across Against Among
In Near Down Despite From
Beneath During By By means Amid
CONJUNCTION If prepositions link words within a sentence, conjunctions relate or join words into single unit. Coordinating Conjunctions- connect words or group of words Examples: but, and, for, nor, or, so, yet TIP: Coordinating conjunctions connect words of the same grammatical structures. 17
Correlative Conjunctions- connect words under the same grammatical structure, but they always appear in pairs. Examples: either….or, neither… nor Subordinating Conjunctions- connects two complete ideas to make one dependent to other. Examples: inasmuch as, whenever, unless
INTERJECTION These are words that express strong feelings or emotions. They may function as an independent sentence with the speaker as the subject. Examples: ouch, aha, alas, oh, hurray
Subject and Verb Agreement Collective Nouns These nouns can either take a singular or plural verb depending on how they are used in a sentence. On the other hand, if a collective noun is perceived as one entity, then it would take a singular verb. On the other hand, if a collective noun is perceived as individuals the group, it will take a plural verb. Examples: Our debate team has won the competition Our debate team have won all their battles Noun ending in –s-and –ics Nouns ending in s and ics are always paired with verbs in the singular form Examples: Mathematics is my favorite subject Measles is a dangerous disease Nouns in sets of twos. Nouns of this nature take a singular verb if the word” pair” is present. If not. They take a plural verb. Examples: A pair of scissors in on the table The scissors are on the table “A number” and “The number” Sentence beginning with the phrase “ a number” always take a plural verb, while sentences that begin with “ the number” take a singular verb” Examples: A number of students have been expelled The number of students being expelled is rising.
Fraction and Percent Nouns in percent and in fraction take a singular verb if paired with a non-count noun, and vice versa. Examples: 50% of the Earth’s water is still safe for drinking One-third of the students were expelled
Compound Nouns 18
Compound subjects joined by a conjunction take plural verbs. Examples: Paul and Robin are brothers Neither…nor and Either…or The verb must agree with closet noun. Example: Neither John nor his brothers are going to America As well and Together with The verb must agree with the first noun (subject). Example: the president, together with his advisers, is leaving tomorrow Tenses Simple Present Tense Verbs in the present tense express habitual or factual actions. Examples: She sings The sun shines Simple Past Tense Verbs in the past tense express actions that happened in the past. Example: She sang yesterday Simple Future Tense Verbs in the future tense express actions that will happen in the future. Example: She will sing. Present Progressive Tense Verbs in the present progressive tense, express actions that are happening at the moment. Example: She is singing. Past Progressive Tense This expresses a continuing action that started and ended in the past. Example: She was singing all afternoon yesterday. Future Progressive Tense This expresses a continuing action that will happen in the future. Example: She will be singing in the competition. Present Perfect Tense This expresses an action that started in the past, but is still happening at present Example: I have sung a song.
Past Perfect Tense This expresses two past actions, in which one happened before the other. Example: she had sung before she danced.
Future Perfect Tense This expresses two future actions, in which one will happen before the other. 19
Example: She will have sung before she dances. Present Perfect Progressive Tense This expresses an action that started in the past and still happening at present and will most likely continue to happen in the future. Example: She has been singing since this morning. Past Perfect Progressive Tense This expresses two past actions, where the first one was still happening when the second one transpired. Example: She had been singing before the bomb exploded. Future Perfect Progressive Tense This expresses two future actions, where the first action is still happening when the second one is transpires. Example: She will have been singing before the bomb explodes.
SUMMARY Present Past Future Present Progressive Past Progressive Future Progressive Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Present Perfect Progressive Past perfect Progressive Future Perfect Progressive
SUMMARY I dance I danced I will dance I am dancing I was dancing all afternoon yesterday I will be dancing I have danced I had danced before I sang I will have danced before I sing I have been dancing since then I had been dancing when the bomb exploded I will have been when the party ends
Faulty Modifiers Dangling Modifier- absence of the word being modified Example: Inside the store, shoes must be worn Who must wear the shoes? Customers must wear shoes inside the store. Misplaced Modifier- the modifier modifies the wrong word. Example: Turning green, I watched the lights turning green.
Fragment- group of words masquerading as a sentence Example: The justice system in the olden times
Sentence Four Kinds of Sentences according to Function 20
Declarative- states an idea and express facts and opinion Example: She is a pretty girl We must learn how to swim The earth is round Interrogative- used in asking questions - Ends with a question mark Example: Who are you? What is the capital city of Hungary? Imperative- used in asking someone to do something - “you” is the implies subject Example: Go away Turn around Write your name Exclamatory- used to express strong feeling or emotion -end with a exclamation point Example: Fire! Bomb! You won! Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure Sentence Patterns with Transitive Verbs S-AV-DO ( Subject-Action Verb-Direct Object) Beth read the book quickly I gave him a book S-AV-IO-DO (Subject- Action Verb- Indirect Object-Direct Object) I gave the place a new coat of paint Mr. Padilla gave me the test results S-AV-DO-OC (Subject- Action Verb-Direct Object- Object Complement) The judges considered him a champion The movie’s ending made her happy Sentence Patterns with Linking Verbs S-LV-PN (Subject-Linking Verbs-Predicate Nominative That boy is the culprit One of the contestants is she. S-LV-PA (Subject- Linking Verb- Predicate Adjective The show is cool 21
The singer sounds bad Four Kinds of Sentences According to Structure Simple Sentence- composed of one independent clause Compound Sentence- composed of two or more independent clauses Complex Sentence- composed of one independent clause and two or more dependent clauses Compound- Complex- composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses Examples: Simple Sentence Compound Sentence Complex Sentence Compound- Complex
I tried to stop her I tried to stop her, but she still went away I tried to stop her when she left I tried to stop her when she left, but she still went away
LITERATURE
Introduction to Fiction FICTION Fiction is a prose imaginative composition which may or may not be based on history or fact. The different types of fiction are the following: Short story- a relatively brief prose fictional composition based in a single main incident which is designed to produce a single dominant impression. Novel- a prose fictional work of considerable length that deals with a series of complications involving characters in a particular setting. Drama- a composition in prose or verse designed for stage performance through mine and dialogue. Allegory- a symbolic fictional account conveying meaning/s beyond the literal Element of Fiction Plot The plot is a series of events knit together following the principle of cause and effect. It is also deemed to be an arrangement of incidents, the narrative structure, the organization of a narrative, and the logical sequence of actions. A plot can be arranged and organized in two ways, the first one is through Chronology-which means that the events are arranged according to time and space, and the second one is through Climax-which means that the events are organized according to order of suspense. There are also two types of plot, the first one is called organic, which means the story sprouted from just one conflict; and the second one is episodic, which means there are two or more sources of conflicts.
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Conflict Conflict is considered as the soul of the plot, and it is the tension between opposing forces in the story. It can be external, which means that conflict is from outside forces; or internal which means the conflict resides the main character. Here are the types of conflicts: Physical-man vs. nature Social- man vs. man Psychological- man vs. self Cosmic- man vs. God Character Characters in the story are the moral agents of actions. They are the invented personages in fiction. There are two types of characters namely major and minor. Under major characters, we have the protagonist, who is the central character where the story revolves; and the antagonist, who prevents the protagonist in solving the conflict. Under minor characters we have foil, who has the opposite traits of the main protagonist; the confidant, who serves as the friend of the protagonist; and the background characters, who are not closely related with the protagonist. We also have two kinds of character. The first one is round, which means the character was able to undergo change, while the second one is called flat, which means there was no change in the outlook and action of character. Setting The setting serves as the background of the story, may it be physical, mental, or spiritual. It serves as the backdrop and sets the mood of the characters. There are three elements of setting. The first one is time, which sets the duration of the events; next is place, which talks about the locally; and the third one is atmosphere, which is the emotion or the mood. Theme Theme is considered as the central message of the story. It is the universal truth expressed in the text. Point of View This pertains to the vantage point where the story is narrated. Below are the different types; FIRST person- a principal character in the story is the one narrating it. SECOND person (unlimited)- an indirect disclosure of the narrating self for characterization and analysis THIRD person-(limited) also known as the central intelligence point of view; the author choose a character from whose consciousness the entire story is told CAMERA EYE- presents the dialogues, and the incidents of a narrative like a mechanical recording device. REVOLVING-characterized by a narrative shift from one point of view to another COMPOSITE point of view-gives a comprehensive view of the events and incidents in the story through the different angles adapted by several narrating characters Figurative Language 1. Synecdoche-an association of some important part with the whole it represents. Example: the face who launched a thousands ships 2. Simile- an indirect association Example: she like a flower 3. Personification-given human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.) 23
Example: the sun is looking down on me. 4. Oxymoron- a self-contrasting statement Example: Loud silence 5. Metonymy- an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something that represents it. Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate 6. Metaphor- a direct comparison Example: you are the sunshine of my life 7. Irony- the contrast between what was expected and what actually happened Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break 8. Hyperbole- an exaggeration Example: Cry me a river 9. Euphenism- Creating a positive connotation out of something negative. Example: Loved child (illegitimate child) 10. Ellipsis- omission of words in a sentence Example: She walked away and so the world turns… 11. Asyndeton- Not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions) Example: No retreat, no surrender 12. Apostrophe- A direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away Example: Love, please come and take me. WORD LITERATURES WORKS The Epic of Gilamesh Lliad Odyssey The Analects The Oresteia Agamemnom Theban Plays: Oedipus Rex Oedipus at Colonus Antigone Alcestis Medea Hippolytus The Trojan Women Electra The Histories The History of the Pelipennesian War The Art of War Lysistrata The Clouds The Birds The Republic Ethics Politics
AUTHORS LEQI-UNNINNI, SCRIBE (700BCE) HOMER, (800 BCE) CONFUCIUS (551-479 BCE) AESCHYLUS (496-406 BCE) SOPHOCLES (496-406 BCE)
EURIPIDES 9484-406 (BCE)
HERODOTUS (484-425 BCE) THUCYDIDES (470-400 BCE) SUN-TZU (450-380 BCE) ARUSTOPHANES (448-388 BCE)
PLATO (428-348 BCE) ARISTOTLE ( 384-322 BCE)
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Poetics The Book of Mencius The Ramayana The Mahabharata The Bhagavad Gita Records of the Grand Historian Of the Nature of Things The Aeneid Mediations The Confessions The Cloud Messenger Sakuntala/Shakuntala The Koran The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriach Shah Nameh The Pillow Book The Tale of Genji ( First Novel in the world) The Rubaiyet The Divine Comedy The Romance of the Three Kingdoms The Canterbury Tales 1001 Nights/Arabian nights The Prince Gargantua and Pantagruel Journey to the West Essays-Apology for Raymond Sebond Don Quixote Romeo and Juliet Much Ado About Nothing Twelfth Knight Merchant of Venice Devotions Sermons First and Second Anniversaries Dialogue Concerning The Two Chief World Systems Leviathan Discourse on Method Paradise Lost Lycidas Areopagitica The School for Wives Rartuffe The Would-Be Gentleman Thoughts Pilgrims Second Treatise of Government The Narrow Road to the Deep North
MENCIUS (400-320 BCE) VALMIKI (300 BCE) VYASA (200BCE) ANONYMOUS (200BCE) SSU-MA CHE’IEN (145-86BCE) LUCRETUS 1(100-50 BCE) VIRGIL (70-19 BCE) AURELIUS, MARCUS (121-180) SAINT AGUSTINE (354-430) KALIDASA (400) MUHAMMAD (650) HUI-NENG (638-713) FIRDAUS (940-1020) SEI SHONAGON (965-1035) MURSAKI, LADY SHIKIBU (976-1015) KHAYAM, OMAR (1048) ALIGHIERI, DANTE (12655-1321) KUAN-CHUNG, LUO (1330-1400) CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (1342-1400) ANONYMOUS (1500) MACHIAVELLI, NICOLO (1469-1527) RABELAIS, FRNCOIS (1483-1553) WU CHE’ENG-EN (1500-1582) MONTAIGNE, MICHEI (1533-1592) SAAVEDRA. MIGUEL DE CERVANTES (1547-1616) SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)
DONNE, JOHN (1573-1631)
GALILEI, GALILEO (1574-1642) HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1 DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650) MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674)
MOLIERE (1622-1673)
PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662) BUNYAN, JOHN (1628-1688) LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704) BASHO, MATSU (1644-1694) 25
Robinson Crusoe Gulliver’s Travel Candid An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding Tom Jones Confessions The Social Contact Tristram Shandy The Life of Samuel Johnson Basic Documents in American History Faust A Poison Tree The Prelude The Ancient Mariner Christabel Kublai Khan Pride and Prejudice Emma The Read and the Black Pere Goriot Eugenie Cousin Bette Self Reliance The Scarlet Letter Democracy in America On Liberty The Subjection of Women The Voyage of the Beagle The Origin of the Species Dead Souls The Cask of Amontillado Annabel Lee Vanity Fair Pickwick Papers The Tale of Cities A Christmas Carol David Copperfield Great Expectations The Warden Jane Eyre Wuthering Heights Walden Civil Disobedience Fathers and Sons The Communist Manifesto Moby Dick The Mill on the Floss Middlemarch
DEFOE, DANIEL (1660-17310 SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745) VOLTAIRE (1694-17178) HUME,DAVID (1711-1776) FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754) ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778) STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768) BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795) JEFFERSON, THOMAS WOLFGANG VON GOETHE, JOHANN BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827) WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-1850) COLEERIDE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834)
AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817) STENDHAL (1783-1842) DE BALZAC, HONORE (1799-1850)
EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882) HAWTHORNE,NATHANIEL (1804-1864) DE TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS (1805-1859) MILL.JOHN STUART (1806-1873) DARWIN, CHARLES (1809-1859) GOGOL, NIKOLAI (1809-1882) POE, EDGAR ALLAN (1809-1849) THACKERY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE (1811-1863) DICKENS, CHARLES (1812-1870)
TROLLOPE, ANTHONY (1815-1882) BRONTE, CHARLOTTE (1816-1855) BRONTE, EMILLY (1818-1848) THROREAU, HENRY DAVID (1817-1862) TURGENEY, IVAN (1818-1883) MARX, KARL (1818-1883) MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891) ELIOT, GEORGE (1819-1880)
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Silas Marner Leaves of Grass Madame Bovary Crime and Punishment Brothers Karamazov War and Peace Annakarenina The Soul Selects Her Society A Dimple in the Tomb Huckleberry Finn Tom Sawyer The Mayor of Casterbridge The Interpretation of Dreams Uncle Vanya Three Sisters The Cheery Orchard The Age of Innocence The House of Mirth The Road Not Taken Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening A Passage of India Ulysses Mrs. Dalloway To the Lighthouse Orlando Sons and Lovers Lady Chatterley’s Lover The Fox A long Day’s Journey into the Night Mourning Becomes Electra Waste Land Brave New World The Sound and the Fury A Rose for Emily Old Man and the Sea 1984 Animal Farm The English Teacher Waiting for Godot One Hundred Love in the Time of Cholera Things Fall Apart No longer At Ease Sula The Beloved Jazz Song of Solomom
WHITMAN, WALT (1819-1892) FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880) DOSTOYEVSKY, FYDOR (1821-1880) TOLSTOY, ELO (1828-1910) DICKENSON, EMILY (1830-1886) TWAIN, MARK (1835-1910) HARDY, THOMAS (1840-1928) FRUED, SIGMUND (1856-1939) CHEKOV, ANTON (1860-1904)
WHARTON, EDITH (1862-1937) FROST, ROBERT (1874-1963) FORSTER, E.M (1879-1970) JOYCE, JAMES (1882-1941) WOOF, VIRGINIA ( 1882-1941)
LAWRENCE, DFAVID HERBERT (1885-1930) O’NEIL, EUGENE (1888-1953) ELIOT,T.S (1888-1965) HUXLEY, ALDOUS ( 1894-1963) FAULKNER, WILLIAM (1897-1962) HEMINGWAY, ERNEST (1899-1962) ORWELL, GEORGE (1903-1950) NARAYAN, R.K BECKETT, SAMUEL (1906-1989) MARQUEZ, GABRIEL GARCIA (1928-PRESENT) ACHEBE, CHINUA (1930-PRESENT) MORRISSON (1931-PRESENT
FILIPINO AUTHORS and their WORKS
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WORKS Magnificence and other stories The Knifed Horizon A Stun of Jewels How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife and Other Stories Sunflower Poems The Archipelago Telex Moon Sunlight on Broken Stones What is an Educated Filipino Dead Stars Stepping Stories Half a Life The Living and the Dead A Wind Over the Earth Distance to Andromeda America is in the Heart ( Autobiographical) The Laughter of My Father The Voice of Bataan The Power of the People People in the War The Visitation of the Gods The Butcher, The Baker, and the Candlestick Maker The Wedding Dance No Certain Weather Barter in Panay Daedalus and OtherPoems Masks and Signatures The Devil Flower House of Images Palabas: Essays on Philippine Threater Poems in Spanish and Ilocano Now and at the Hour Fire Poem/Rain Poem Popular Delusions Planet waves Poems The Winds of April A Season of Grace Seven Hills Away Children of the Ash-Covered Loam The Bamboo Dancers Children of the City Dogeaters Gangster of Love Encanto
AUTHORS ALFON, ESTRELLA ANGELES, CARLOS ARGUILLA, MANUEL AYALA, TITA LACAMBRA BAUTISTA, CIRILO
BENITEZ, FRNCISCO BENITEZ, FRNACISO
BRILLANTES, GREGORIO
BULOSAN, CARLOS
CORDERO-FERNANDO, GILDA
DAGUIO, AMADOR DEMETILLO, RICARDO
ENRIQUEZ, EGMIDIO RICARDO FERNANDEZ, DOREEN FLORENTINO, LEONA FORD, AIDA RIVERA GAMALINDA, ERIC
ALVAREZ
GLORIA, ANGELA MANALANG GONZALES N.V.M
GUERRERO, AMADIS MA HAGEDOREN, JESSICA IGLORIA, MARIA LUISA 28
DEMETILLO,
Blood Sacrifice Juanita Crus Ang Dalaga sa Tindahan Ermita Poon My Brother, My Executioner The Woman Who Had Two Navels Summer Soistice May Day Eve Small Key Desire Sunset Literature and Society Reevaluation Abot-Tanaw My humble Opinion Women Enough The Virgin The Hand of the Enemy
JALANDONI, MAGDALENA JOSE, FRANCISO SIONIL
JOAQUIN, NICK
LATORENA, PAZ
LOPEZ, SALVADOR LUMBERA, BIENVENIDO NAKPIL, CARMEN GUERRERO POLOTAN-TUVERA-KERIMA
Mythology RAMOS. MAXIMO The Creatures of Philippine Lower Zita ROTOR, ARTURO The Wound and the Scar The Volcano SANTOS, BIENVENIDO The Man Who ( Thought He) Looked Like Robert Taylor The Day the Dancers Came Scent of Apples Lidia SOTTO, JUSN CRISOSTOMO His Native Coast TIEMPO, EDITH The Tracks of Babylon Blade of Fem Valediction sa Hillcrest TINO, ROLANDO Claudia and Her Mother Man Songs VILLA, JOSE GARCIA Footnote to Youth Like the Molave ZULUETA DA COSTA, RAFAEL Twisted ZAFRA, JESSICA IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS EXPRESSION Come hell of high water
Put your finger in the pie
Be in the limelight
MEANING I am by your side come hell or high water. This means the speaker would not leave the one he/she is speaking with no matter what happens To finish the task at a much earlier time, everyone must put his/her finger in the pie. It means they must do their share in a particular task. The soprano did her best to be in the limelight. 29
Flogging a dead horse
Bring home the bacon
Between the devil and the deep blue sea
In your face Under the weather
Back to square one Hold your horses
Tickled your horses When pigs fly
At the pink of health
It means to be at the center of everybody’s attention. Rallies and mass demonstrations against the RH law are like flogging a dead horse. It means that the work being done is futile. The speech coach cheered his contestants. He said “Bring the bacon!” It means that he wants the team to win. This situation is hopeless!. It is like the devil and the deep blue sea. This situation is at its worst and the resolution is seen to be unpleasant. The debater was criticized straight in her face. To state something in an aggressive manner. She did not attend her class. She said that she feels under the weather. The person is sick. Her efforts are wasted since she is back to square one. The person has to start again from the beginning. The commandant reminds his team hold their horses until the right time comes. Be patient. The news tickled her pink. Made one every happy. There is no chance of us being husband and wife, unless when pigs fly. Impossible to happen. She looks beautiful and well rested. I assume she is at the pink of health Good health.
Phrasal Verbs Add up Bring about Bring up Call off Carry on Back up Bring off Carry out Count in Cut down Fill out Fill up Hang up Hold up Pay off Touch up Turn down
Add Cause to happen Raise Cancel Continue Support Accomplish Complete Include Reduce Complete (printed form) Complete ( container0 Suspend Rob To complete payment Repair Refuse 30
Throw over Save up Put off Down play Figure out Breakdown
Reject Accumulate Postpone Diminish Understand Analyze
Practice Test Choose the correct meaning of the underline word. Vocabulary: 1. The teacher-adviser monitors the class activities of his pupils. a. Demands c. Identifies b. Observes d. regulates 2. There is a need to renovate the old school building to avoid future accidents. a. repair c. restore b. repaint d. redecorate 3. The athlete was in a sanguine mood after the ball game a. Frustrating c. sad b. happy d. discouraging 4. There is a need for an amicable settlement between the parent and the teacher a. embarrassing c. peaceful b. humble d. continuing 5. There is an altercation going on between the teacher and principal in the office. a. dispute c. settlement b. competition d. jealousy 6. The English teacher is proficient in her teaching. a. effective c. engrossed b. expert d. perfect 7. Stipulate in your constitution and by-laws the qualified of the officers. a. specify c. fasten b. attach d. underline 8. Integrate values in all your subject areas a. remove c. decrease b. include into d. criticize 9. His preposterous reason made him the talk of the campus. a. magnificent c. funny b. ridiculous d. positive 10. The singer was fidgety as the judges were deciding on the winner. a. appealing c. restlessly b. with love d. none of these 11. He was deprive of a mother’s love a. satisfied c. chosen b. debarred d. given 12. The flagrant pupils came shouting with stones in their hands. a. industrious c. notorious b. group of pupils d. intelligent 13. There was a question of fraud among the notorious pupils who took the special examination. 31
a. cheating c. unfairness b. injustice d. favoritism 14. Her answer was explicable in public a. undetermined c. unacceptable b. can be explained d. unreasonable 15. She looked haggard when she came in a. fresh c. gaunt b. at ease d. inspired Subject-Verb Agreement 16. Everybody in the gymnasium _____ frustrated when the candidate did not appear in public. a. was b. were 17. A bag of candies and a bottle of coke ____ on the table. a. Is b. are 18. That _____ seem correct. a. don’t b. doesn’t 19. Either the boys or girls _____ here. a. is b. are 20. The number of teacher in the school ____ from year to year. a. vary b. varies 21. One-third of the classroom_____ under water. a. was b. were 22. She is one of those honor pupils who always _____ into confusion. a. get b. gets 23. Each of the members of the club _____ a duty to perform. a. Have b. Has 24. Mrs. Tecson’s creativeness and concern _____ well appreciated. a. is b. are 25. There ____ many pupils here. a. Is b. are 26. Many years of his life _____ spent in province a. Was b. were 27. No one ____ at home. a. is b. are 28. My leg and my arm _____ aching. a. Is b. are 29. She _____ to read novels. a. like b. likes 30. There _____ eight men in the game. a. is b. are Identify the figure of speech in the following statement. 31. Michael shouts like mike does. a. hyperbole c. metaphor b. simile d. litotes 32. Dona was tired to death after a long day of cooking. a. simile c. metaphor b. hyperbole d. personification 33. She has a Venus beauty a. simile c. metaphor 32
b. hyperbole d. litotes 34. As the rain falls, the leaves dance merrily while the cool breeze touches my lips gently. a. Hyperbole c. metaphor b. litotes d. personification 35. Mt. Apo is a small volcano compared to Mt. matutum. a. Litotes c. Metaphor b. Hyperbole d. Simile 36. Chris was a limb in the group during the disco party. a. simile c. hyperbole b. metaphor d. litotes 37. Her lips are as cold as ice a. simile c. personification b. metaphor d. synecdoche 38. James was crushed by the death of Kris. a. simile c. hyperbole b. personification d. metaphor 39. Her skin is as white as onion a. simile c. hyperbole b. metaphor d. litotes 40. She has the King Solomon ideas. a. Simile c. metaphor b. Hyperbole d. personification IV. Vocabulary 41. That coke is delicious a. looks good c. looks colorful b. tastes good d. smells good 42. I won’t come anymore a. come soon c. already came b. never come d. any of these 43. The story is uninteresting a. very interesting b. interesting in some part c. not interesting d. some how interesting 44. She was attracted by the hedge a. stone c. fence b. low bushes d. none of these 45. The memo is compulsory. a. must be done c. must be kept b. a request d. optional 46. She has to economize. a. earn more money c. put business b. spend less d. spend more 47. The pond is shallow a. has clear water b. is full of mass c. is not deep 48. The oil trickles down the machine a. flows rapidly b. flows little by little 33
c. flows in large quantities 49. That pond is full of fry. a. small fish c. mosquito b. frogs d. wraps 50. I sneaked out. a. went out noisily c. went out easily b. went out without attracting 51. He hasn’t come yet a. he’ll come later c. he won’t come b. we won’t wait for him d. he will never come 52. You will sprinkle the flower once a day a. change c. cut b. water d. throw 53. These fish are fresh a. cooked c. cheap b. newly caught d. rotten 54. The light is dim a. off c. colored b. not bright d. very bright 55. The ants are motile a. small c. numerous b. movable d. big V. Answer the following correctly. 56. How do you address a Christmas card where the husband is a Doctor of Philosophy and the wife is an attorney? Which is the right form? a. Dr. and Atty. Ben Marquez b. Dr. Ben Reyes and Atty. Rose Reyes c. Dr. Reyes and Atty. Reyes d. Dr. and Mrs. Ben Reyes 57. Writing to your superior, what complimentary wending should be used? a. truly yours, c. Yours truly, b. very truly yours, d. Truly very your’s 58. Choose the proper use of everyday. a. You find this headline everyday. b. You find this headline everyday in the newspapers. c. You don’t find the issue clear everyday. d. I read the issue everyday 59. Which declaration shows determination? a. What an embarrassing situation! b. I have good words for you. c. This time, I won’t stop teaching. d. I will still think about it. 60. When you are writing to someone you hardly know, the salutation should be a. My dear Mrs. Ponce b. Dear Mrs. Ponce c. To ever dearest Mrs. Ponce d. My ever dearest Mrs. Ponce 61. “Early to bed, early to rise, keeps a man healthy, wealthy, and wise” means a. sleep early and wake up early so you will become wealthy 34
b. Develop healthy habits of going to bed early and getting c. Sleeping is the root of making wealth d. Sleeping will give you a healthy mind. 62. “Tell me who your friends are and I’ll tell you who you are” means a. You are the judges as to who your peers are. b. Your friends are your everyday companions. c. You choose your friends. d. Tell me who you to be with. 63. Which of this word are synonymous with settlement? a. Autonomy c. Accord b. Breakthrough d. Policy 64. What does it mean by saying “Not all close eyes are asleep”. a. Not all eyes are blind. b. The eyes seem to be closed, yet she knows what’s going on. c. When we sleep sometimes we open our eyes. d. Sleeping is not always closing our eyes. 65. What is meant by live within your means? a. Grow as your live b. Liking is the means of growing. c. Spend according to your income. d. Growing is the means to live. 66. “ I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my soul” was written by a. Henley c. Elliot b. Dickens d. Shelley 67. “ A thing of beauty is a joy forever” expressed the philosophy of a. Spencer c. Elliot b. Keats d. Tennyson 68. America’s greatest humorist a. Benjamin Franklin c. Washington Irving b. Mark twain d. Samuel Clemens 69. A long narrative poem dealing with persons of heroic proportion and actions of great significance a. Ballad c. Sonnet b. Epic d. Elegy 70. Considered the father of the modern American short story a. Shakespeare c. Edgar Allan Poe b. Bacon d. Robert frost 71. It is a Japanese poem with 17 syllables. a. Niponggo c. Canto b. Haiku d. Tanaga 72. A collection of literary pieces a. Prose c. Anthology b. Biography d. Diary 73. Verse with 14 iambic pentameter lines a. Epic c. Verse b. Sonnet d. Prose 74. Longest epic ever written a. Invictus c. Mahabharata b. Lam-ang d. Lament 75. Stories that reflect people’s beliefs and are handed from generation to generation a. Prose c. Poetry b. Folktales d. Ballad 35
76. These are not tales making use of animals as characters a. Myths c. Fables b. Legends d. Fiction 77. Known for his pen name “Dolores Manapat” a. Antonio Luna c. Gracianio Lopez Jaena b. Marcelo H. del Pilar d. Andres Bonifacio 78. Filipino essayist an Patriots who edited and published “La Solidaridad” a. Apolinario Mabini c. Jose Rizal b. Andres Bonifacio d. Marcelo H. del Pilar 79. His words were the source of inspiration for the poem “ Like the Molave” a. Mabini c. Quezon b. Carlos Romulo d. Rizal 80. A poem lamenting the dead a. Sonnet c. Elegy b. Ode d. Satire 81. Represent of a thing or ideas of a person a. hyperbole c. Heroic Couplet b. Allusion d. Personification 82. A speech by a person who reveals his thoughts a. Sonnet c. soliloquy b. Metaphor d. simile 83. Figure of speech where two different things are compared thru the use of “as” and “like” a. simile c. facsimile b. allegory d. epic 84. Author of “ how My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” a. Manuel Arguilla c. Paz Benitez b. Fernando maramag d. None of these 85. These stories, which reflect the people’s belief, are handed down from one generation to another by word of mouth. a. novels c. prose b. folktales d. poetry 86. A type of literature which narrates heroic deeds and supernatural happenings with local color and which people sing or chant a. epic c. verse b. poetry d. riddles 87. He wrote the famous letter “ To the Women of Malolos” a. Gregorio del Pilar c. Jose Rizal b. Andres Bonifacio d. Emilio Jacinto 88. A kind of literary piece which moralizes and was written in letter from between two sisters dwelling in the city ad the other in the province. a. urbana at Felisa c. Manang Biday b. Pasyon, religious play d. None of these 89. How is the author of “The legend of sleepy Hollow” which revolves around a headlines horseman’s tale a. George Washington c. Washington Irving b. Robert Surtess d. Shakespeare 90. Considered as one of the world’s greatest short stories and it is Edgar Allan Poe’s story of terror about a hypochondriac living in morbid fear. a. Annabel Lee c. Macbeth b. The fall of the house of Usher d. The Raven 91. He is Edmond Rostand’s famous character who is a poet and a soldier noted for his peculiar nose. a. Roxanne c. Ichabod 36
b. Don Quixote d. Cyrano de Bergerac 92. “If eyes are made for seeing, then beauty is its own excuse for being “- is taken from the poem’ a. The bells c. Don juan b. Sonnet d. Rhodora 93. A great epic poem whose plot centers around the anger and wrath of Achilles against Agamemnon, a geek leader a. Bernardo Carpio c. The Odyssey b. The Iliad of Homer d. Myth 94. “I am the master of my fate, I am the captain of my soul”,, is taken room the poem a. O Captain, my captain b. Invictus c. The arrow and the Song d. None of these 95. He was the American President who said: “Ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.” a. Gerald Ford c. Harry Truman b. F. Roosevelt d. Abe Lincoln 96. The speech of Abe Lincoln which end, thus; “That the government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” – is in his famous a. farewell Address at Sprinfield b. Inaugural Address c. Address at Gettysburg d. None of these 97. The figure of speech, which uses exaggerated statement for aesthetic reason. a. Alliteration c. Hyperbole b. Onomatopoeia d. Metaphor 98. His famous work is Mona Lisa a. Jose Rizal c. Juan Luna b. Leonardo da Vinci d. Pavarotti 99. The famous painting Juan Luna made a. Spolarium c. Rice Paddies b. Bahag-hari d. Sunset 100. The stature of David was created by a. Sigfried Vandike c. Michelangelo b. Vincent Gogh d. Andre Warbol
LET Reviewer-Filipino LECTURE NOTES
Wika Ilang mga pananaw ukol sa wika:
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“…Maari nating hiramin sa loob ng isang panahon ang wika ng ibang bayan, ngunit hindi tayo tunay na makapag-aangkin ng isang wikang pambansa maliban sa pamamagitan ng pagpapatibay, pagpapaunlad at paggamit ng isang wika na sariling atin.” (Manuel L. Quezon) Parang hininga ang wika, sa bawat sandali ng buhay natin ay nariyan ito. Palatandaan ito na buhay tayo, at may kakayahang umugnay sa kapwa nating gumagamit din nito. (Bienvenido L. Lumbera) Ang wika ay isang panlipunang penomenon. Ibig sabihin, mahalaga ito hindi lamang s indibidwal kundi lalo na sa lipunang kanyang kinabibilangan. (Pamela C. Constantino) Mahalagang kasangkapan ng panlipunang kapital ang wika na ang gamit ay gawing episyente o mabisa ang mga transaksyon sa isang ekonomiya. (Tereso Tullao, Jr.) Ang pag-aaral ng wikang Filipino ay binubuo ng dalawang kakayahan: kakayahang makabuo ng mga pahayag o pangungusap na may wastong kayariang pambalarila; tinatawag itong kakayahang linggwistika o linguistic competence kakayahang maunawaan at magamit ang mga pangungusap na may wastong pambalarilang kayarian sa angkop na panlipunang kapaligiran ayon sa hinihingi ng sitwasyon; tinatawag itong kakayahang komunikatibo o communicative competence. Ponolohiya Patern o kumbinasyon ng mga tunog sa loob ng isang wika Ponema – pinakamaliit ngunit pinakamakahulugang yunit ng tunog ng isang wika. Mga Ponemang Segmental Ito ay makabuluhang tunog sa Filipino na ginagamitan ng mga katumbas na titik upang mabasa at mabigkas. Kabilang dito ang mga ponemang katinig, patinig, diptonggo, at klaster. Mga Ponemang Katinig Ang mga katinig ng Filipino ay maiaayos ayon sa punto o paraan ng artikulasyon at kung ang mga ito ay binibigkas nang may tinig o walang tinig. Mga Ponemang Patinig Ang mga patinig ng Filipino ay maiaayos sa tsart ayon sa kung aling bahagi ng dila ang gumagana sa pagbigkas ng isang patinig—unahan, sentral, likod—at kung ano ang posisyon ng nasabing bahagi sa pagbigkas—mataas, nasa gitna, o mababa.
Bahagi ng Dila
Posisyon ng Bahagi ng Dila sa Pagbigkas Harap
Mataas
i
Gitna
e
Sentral
()
Likod
u o
38
Mababa
a
Ang /i/, halimbawa, ay tinatawag na mataas-harap sapagkat kapag binibigkas ito, ang harap na bahagi ng dila ang gumagana na karaniwan ay umaarko nang pataas. May limang pangunahing patinig ang wikang Filipino: ang /a/. /e/, /i/, /o/, at /u/. Gayon man, mapapansing isinama sa tsart ang ponemang () (schwa) na gamitin sa Pangasinan, ilang pook sa Ilokos, Maranaw, at iba pang lugar sa Pilipinas. Sa maraming katutubong wika ng Pilipinas at maging sa wikang Filipino, mga allophone, o maaaring mapagpalit-palit, ang mga tunog ng /e/ at /i/, gayon din ang mga tunog ng /o/ at /u/. Tulad nito: /lalakeh/ ~ /lalakih/ ‘man’ /babaeh/ ~ /babaih/ ‘woman’ /miyerkoles/ ~ /miyerkules? ‘Wednesday’ Mga Diptonggo Tumutukoy ang diptonggo sa mga pinagsamang tunog ng isang patinig (a, e, i, o, u) at isang malapatinig (w, y). Nasa ibaba ang tsart ng mga diptonggo sa wikang Filipino. Bahagi ng Dila
Posisyon ng Bahagi ng Dila sa Pagbigkas Harap
Sentral
Likod
Mataas
iw, iy
uy
Gitna
ey
oy, ow
Mababa
ay, aw
Mga halimbawang salita: aywan awdisyon
baytang alay restawran
dilaw
Mga Klaster Ang mga klaster o kambal-katinig sa Filipino ay dumarami dahil sa pagpasok ng ng mga salitang Ingles sa sa wikang Filipino. Ang klaster ay ang magkakabit na dalawang magkaibang katinig sa isang pantig. Mga halimbawa: blakbord
brigada
kard 39
kliyente krokis nars komonwelt transportasyon dimpols Mga Ponemang Suprasegmental Tumutukoy ang mga ponemang suprasegmental sa mga makahulugang yunit ng tunog na karaniwang di tinutumbasan ng titik o letra sa pagsulat. Kabilang sa mga ponemang suprasegmental ang tono (pitch), haba (length), diin (stress), at antala (juncture). Tono Tinutukoy ang tono sa paraan ng pagbigkas na maaaring malambing, pagalit, mabilis na parang nagmamadali, mahina at iba pa. Naiiba-iba ang tono o pagtaas at pagbaba ng tinig sa wikang Filipino batay sa iba’t ibang layunin at damdamin ng nagsasalita. Halimbawa maiiba-iba ang intonasyon sa sumusunod na pangungusap ayon sa inihahayag na emosyon ng nagsasalita. Basahin ang mga pangungusap batay sa ipinahahayag na emosyon: Ikaw nga! (nagulat) Ikang nga! (pagalit) Ikaw pala. (ordinaryong pagbati) Ikaw pala. (walang interes na pagbati) Diin Ginagamit sa gramatikang ito ang dalawang magkahiwalay na bar (/ /) upang maglaman ng notasyong ponemik na sisimbolo sa paraan ng pagbigkas ng isang salita. Ginagamit din ang tuldok / . / upang matukoy ang pantig o silabol ng isang salita na may diin (stress). Ito ay nangangahulugan naman ng pagpapahaba ng pantig na laging may kasamang patinig. Tulad ng sumusunod kung saan may diin at pinahahaba ang pantig na sinusundan / . /: /kasa.ma/* = companion /kasama/ = tenant /magnana.kaw/ = thief /magna-na.kaw/ = will steal /magna.nakaw/ = will go on stealing Punto at Intonasyon Tumutukoy ang punto sa kakaibang pagbigkas ng isang grupo ng mga tao. Halimbawa sa rehiyong Tagalog, iba-iba ang punto ng mga Batangenyo, Kabitenyo, taga-Quezon, Rizal, Bataan, at iba pang nasa Katagalugan. Sa pagsasalita pa lamang, madaling matukoy kung saan nagmula ang isang tao, lalo pa’t gumagamit siya ng “Ala e!” kung taga-Batangas, ng “Aru!” kung taga-Queson at iba pa. Ang ilang lugar naman sa Cebu na gumagamit ng “Agi!” Hinto Ito ay ang pagtigil sa pagsasalita na maaaring panandalian (sa gitna ng pangungusap), o pangmatagalan (sa katapusan ng pangungusap). Sa pasulat na komunikasyon, sinisimbolo ng kuwit (,) ang panandaliang paghinto at ng tuldok (.) ang katapusan ng pangungusap. Halimbawa 40
Juan Carlo Jose ang pangalan niya.// (Tinutukoy si Juan Carlo Jose at sinasabi ang kanyang buong pangalan. Maaaring itinuturo lamang si Juan Carlo Jose, o maaari rin namang kaharap siya ng mga nag-uusap.) Juan/ Carlo Jose ang pangalan niya.// (Kinakausap si Juan, at ipinakikilala sa kanya si Carlo Jose.) Juan Carlo/ Jose ang tawag sa kanya.// (Kausap ang isang lalake na Juan Carlo ang pangalan. Ipinakikilala sa kanya si Jose, o kaya’y itinuturo si Jose.) Alpabetong Filipino Ang alpabetong Filipino ay binubuo ng 28 letra na ganito ang ayos: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, Ň, NG, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z, Sa 28-letrang ito ng alpabeto, 20 letra ang nasa dating ABAKADA (A, B, K, D, E, G, H, I, L, M, N, NG, O, P, R, S, T, U, W, Y), at 8 letra ang dagdag dito (C, F, J, Ň, Q, V, X, Z) na galing sa mga umiiral na wika ng Pilipinas at sa iba pang wika. Ang ngalan ng mga letra. Ang tawag sa mga letra ng alpabetong Filipino ay ayon sa tawag-Ingles maliban sa Ň (enye) na tawag-Kastila. Silabikasyon Sa kasalukuyan ay may mga kayarian ng pantig na ambag ng mga lokal na wika at panghihiram. Ang pagtukoy sa pantig, gayundin sa kayarian nito, ay sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng simbolong K para sa katinig at P para sa patinig. Narito ang ilang halimbawa ng mga pantig. Kayarian
Halimbawa
P KP PK KPK KKP PKK KKPK KKPKK KKPKKK
u-pa ma-li is-da han-da pri-to eks-perto plan-tsa trans-portasyon shorts
Palabuuan ng Salita 1. Morpolohiya – ito ay sistema ng pagsasama-sama ng mga morpema sa pagbuo ng mga salita sa isang wika. Pag-aaral ng mga morpema ng wika.
41
Morpema – pinakamaliit na yunit o bahagi ng wika na nagtataglay ng sariling kahulugan. Ito ay maaaring isang salita o bahagi lamang ng salita. Mga Paraan ng Pagbuo ng Salita Payak ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng salitang-ugat lamang, tulad nito: langit ilog bahay
yaman puti diwa
sulat lantad/hantad talino
Maylapi ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng salitang-ugat at panlaping maaaring ilagay sa unahan o hulihan ng salitang-ugat. Dahil sa panlaping nag-uuri, nagkakaroon ng iba’t ibang kahulugan ang salita, tulad ng makikita sa loob ng parentesis:
Mga Panlaping Ginagamit sa Pagbuo ng Pangngalan -an 1. lalagyan ng maraming bagay na isinasaad ng salitang-ugat Halimbawa: atisan, manggahan, aklatan 2. pook na ginagampanan ng kilos na isinasaad ng salitang-ugat Halimbawa: saingan, katayan, laruan 3. panahon o maramihang pagganap na isinasaad ng salitang-ugat Halimbawa: binyagan, anihan, taniman 4. gantihang kilos Halimbawa: tulakan, tulungan, kuwentuhan 5. maramihan o sabayang kilos Halimbawa: suguran, bilihan, sigawan -in 1. relasyong isinasaad ng salitang-ugat Halimbawa: pininsan, inale, inapo 2. nagsasaad ng karaniwang gamit o tungkulin ayon sa salitang-ugat Halimbawa: salain, salukin, pikutin
ka1. kasama sa pangkat, katulong sa gawain Halimbawa: kabayan, kalahi, kaklase 2. nagsasaad ng relasyon ayon sa isinasaad ng salitang-ugat. 42
Halimbawa: kalaro, kausap, kamag-anak tag1. nagsasaad ng panahon Halimbawa: tag-init, tag-ulan, tag-araw Mga Panlaping Ginagamit sa Pagbuo ng Pang-uri ma- + su mapag- + su -in / -hin + su
maka- + su mala- + su pala- + su su + -in : ka- + su: su + -an/-han -al uwal/-wal -ante
: : :
mahusay, maganda mapagbigay, mapagtanong silanganin, kanluranin, artistahin (nangangahulugan ng pagtataglay ng katangiang inihuhudyat ng salitang-ugat ang lahat ng panlaping ito) : makabayan, makabago, makamanggagawa (mahilig, kampi, may malasakit) : malabituin, malasanto, malatelenobela (tila, parang, halos) : palaluto, palabasa, palabati, palakain sakitin, bugnutin, magagalitin (may tendensi, ugali o pagkamahilig) kalahi, kasukat, kakulay (kaisa, katulad) : noohan, pangahan, ilongan, matahan (labis ang laki, malaki sa karaniwan) : emosyonal : aktuwal/aktwal : importante, bastante
Mga panlapi para maipakita ang nasyonalidad o rehiyong pinagmulan, pati sekswalidad: -o/a -es/esa -ano/a -ense -enyo/enya
: : : : :
Amerikano/Amerikana, Australyano/a Hapones/Haponesa Ilokano/a, Bikolano/a Pangasinense Batangenyo/a
Inuulit ang anyo ng salita kapag inuulit ito ng parsyal o buo, tulad nito: maganda-ganda (nangangahulugan ng moderasyon, di labis, di kulang) mataas-taas malayu-layo masamang (+-ng) + masama :masamang-masama (naghahayag ng kasukdulan) Tambalan ang anyo ng salita kapag binubuo ito ng dalawang salitang maaaring magkaroon ng ibang kahulugan kapag pinagsama. May gitling (-) sa pagitan ng dalawang salitang pinagtambal subalit taglay pa rin nito ang kani-kanilang kahulugan. Wala nang gitling ang dalawang salitang pinagtambal kung nagkaroon na ito ng pangatlong kahulugan. 43
Halimbawa: balat + sibuyas : ningas + kugon : kapit + tuko palabat + bunga : isip + lamok boses + ipis
balat-sibuyas (sensitibo) ningas-kugon (mabuti lamang sa simula) : kapit-tuko (di humihiwalay) pabalat-bunga (pakitang-tao) : isip-lamok (kahinaan ng pag-iisip, di nag-iisip) : boses-ipis (mahinang-mahina ang boses)
bahaghari dalagambukid Mga Panlaping Makadiwa o Panlaping Ginagamit sa Pagbuo ng Pandiwa 1. Pandiwang pokus sa tagaganap o aktor Panlaping mag-, um-, mang-, maka-, makapag Halimbawa: magsaing, bumili, umasa, mangisda, makapagbenta 2. Pandiwang pokus sa layon Panlaping i, -an, ipa, -in Halimbawa: igisa, balatan, ipaukit, tabasin 3. Pandiwang pokus sa ganapan Panlaping –an, pag—an Halimbawa: saingan, pagsalangan, paglutuan 4. Pandiwang pokus sa tagatanggap Panlaping i-, ipang-, ipagHalimbawa: ibili, ipanghingi, ipagluto 5. Pandiwang pokus sa instrumento Panlaping ipangHalimbawa: ipangsalok, ipambili, ipandilig 6. Pandiwang pokus sa sanhi Panlaping ika-, ikapangHalimbawa: ikagulat, ikainis, ikinagaling, ikinapanghina 7. Pandiwang pokus sa direksyunal Panlaping –an Halimbawa: puntahan, kuhanan, utangan
Pagbabagong Morpoponemiko
Karamihan sa mga pagbabago sa anyo at bigkas ng mga salita ay sanhi ng pagdaragdag ng panlapi o pagsasama ng dalawa o higit pang morpema upang bumuo ng salita. Ang nagaganap na pagbabago ay tinatawag na pagbabagong morpoponemiko. 44
Asimilasyon
pang + bansa = pambansa; mang + daya = mandaya pang + tukoy = pantukoy; mang + dukot = mandukot pang + talo = panalo; mang + kuha = manguha Pagpapalit ano + ano = anu-ano Paglilipat y + in + akap = yinakap = niyakap lipad + in = linipad = nilipad yaya + in = yinaya = niyaya Pagbabago ng ma + dama = marami; ma + dapat = marapat Ponema tamad + in = tamarin; lipad + in = liparin Pagkakaltas bili + han = bilihan = bilhan; dakip + in = dakipin = dakpin tirah + an = tirahan = tirhan; sarah + an = sarahan = sarhan Pagdaragdag paalala + han = paalalahan; paalalahan + an = paalalahanan Pag-aangkop hintay + ka = teka Kaantasan ng Katangiang Ipinahahayag ng Pang-uri 1. Lantay – karaniwang anyo ng pang-uring ginagamit sa paglalarawan Halimbawa: mataba, palabiro, sutil 2. Katamtaman – nagpapahayag ng katamtamang antas ng paglalarawan. Gumamit ng mga salitang medyo, nang kaunti o nang bahagya. Halimbawa: Medyo maitim siya ngayon. Payat siya nang bahagya ngayon. Maaari rin ang katamtamang antas sa pamamagitan ng pag-uulit ng salitang-ugat o dalawang unang pantig nito. Halimbawa: Malayu-layo rin ang kanilang bagong bahay. 3. Masidhi – nagagawa ang pag papasidhi ng pang-uri sa pamamagitan ng pag-uulit ng salita at paggamit ng pang-angkop na na o –ng. Halimbawa: Masayang-masaya siya ngayon. Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga panlaping napaka-, pagka at kay. Halimbawa: Pagkalapi-lapit lang ng kanilang tirahan. Kay init-init ng panahon ngayon. Napakasungit ng kaibigan mo. Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga salitang lubha, masyado, totoo, talaga, tunay, ubod ng, hari at iba pa. Halimbawa: Talagang maaasahan ang kaibigan kong iyon. Tunay na mahal ang mga bilihin ngayon. Antas ng Hambingan 1. Pahambing – tawag sa mga pang-uring ginagamit sa paghahambing ng dalawang tao, bagay, o pook. Halimbawa: Kasinlaki mo si Kuya. Kapwa matalino ang magkapatid. Di kasinhusay ni Paul si Christian. Di hamak na mainam tumira sa probinsya kaysa Manila. 45
2. Pasukdol – panlaping ginagamit sa pagbuo ng pasukdol na anyo ng pang-uri ay ang pinaka- at ka-an. Halimbawa: Pinakamabili ang tinda nilang paputok. Kasuluk-sulukan ang kanilang pinuntahang bahay. Pokus ng Pandiwa
Ito ay tumutukoy sa makahulugang ugnayan ng pandiwa at ng paksa ng pangungusap. May pitong (7) uri ng pokus ang pandiwa. 1. Pokus sa Tagaganap/Aktor – ang paksa ay ang tagaganap ng kilos na ipinahihiwatig ng pandiwa. Mga panlaping ginagamit: mag-, um-/um, mang-, maka-, at makapagHalimbawa: Sumalok ng tubig ang bata. 2. Pokus sa Layon – binibigyang-diin sa pangungusap ay ang layon. Mga panlaping ginagamit: i-, an, ma, ipa, at –in. Halimbawa: Isinalok ng bata ang timba. 3. Pokus sa Ganapan – binibigyang-diin ng paksa ay ang lugar o ang ganapan ng kilos. Mga panlaping ginagamit: pag-…-an/-han, mapag-…-an/-han, at pang-..-an/-han Halimbawa: Pinagsalukan ng bata ng tubig ang balon. 4. Pokus sa Tagatanggap – ang paksa ay ang tagatanggap o ang pinaglalaanan ng kilos na ipinahahayag ng pandiwa. Mga ginagamit na panlapi: i-, ipang-, at ipag-. Halimbawa: Ipinangsalok niya ng tubig ang ama. 5. Pokus sa Intrumento o Gamit – ang paksa ng pangungusap ay ang instrumento o gamit sa pagsasagawa ng kilos na isinasaad ng pandiwa. Panlaping ginagamit: ipangHalimbawa: Ipinangsalok niya ng tubig ang timba. 6. Pokus sa Direksyon – ang paksa ng pangungusap ay ang direksyon o tinutungo ng kilos na isinasaad ng kilos. Mga panlaping ginagamit: -an/-han. Halimbawa: Pinagsalukan ng bata ng tubig ang balon. 7. Pokus sa Sanhi – ang paksa ng pangungusap ay ang dahilan o sanhi ng kilos. Mga panlaping ginagamit: i-, ika- at ikapang-. Halimbawa: Ikinatakot ng bata ang pagkaubos ng tubig.
Aspekto ng Pandiwa
Ang aspekto ay ang katangian ng pandiwa na nagsasaad kung nasimulan na o hindi pa ang kilos. Ang mga pandiwa sa Filipino ay nababanghay sa tatlong aspekto.
1. Perpektibo/Pangnagdaan – ang kilos ay nasimulan na o natapos na. Maaari rin itong magsaad ng kilos na katatapos lamang. Nabubuo ito sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng unlaping ka- at pag-uulit ng unang katinig at unang patinig o unang patiniog lamang ng salitang-ugat. Halimbawa: Nagtinda siya ng isda sa palengke. Katitinda lang niya ng isda sa palengke. 2. Imperpektibo/Pangkasalukuyan – ang kilos ay nasimulan na at ipinagpapatuloy pa. Halimbawa: Nagtitinda siya ng isda sa palengke. 3. Kontemplatibo/Panghinaharap – ang kilos ay di pa nasisimulan. 46
Halimbawa: Magtitinda siya ng isda sa palengke. Ang Paningit o Ingklitik
Ang paningit o ingklitik ay katagang isinisingit sa pangungusap upang higit na maging malinaw ang kahulugan nito. Halimbawa: ba, kasi, kaya, daw/raw, din/rin, ho, lamang/lang, man, muna, na, naman, nga, pa, pala, sana, tuloy, at yata.
Ayos ng Pangungusap sa Filipino
Ang batayang pangungusap sa Filipino ay binubuo ng dalawang panlahat ng bahagi—ang panaguri at ang paksa.
1. Paksa – pinag-uusapan o pinagtutuunan ng pansin sa pangungusap. 2. Panaguri – nagbibigay ng kaalaman o impormasyon tungkol sa paksa. Iba’t Ibang Uri ng Panaguri sa Filipino: 1. Panaguring Pangngalan Halimbawa: Kompyuter ang gustong regalo ng bata. Aklat-pambata ang dala ko. 2. Panaguring Panghalip Halimbawa: Sila ang kamag-anak ko. Tayo ang maghahatid ng sulat. 3. Panaguring Pang-uri Halimbawa: Malungkot ang buhay sa Dubai. Mahal ang nabili kong damit. 4. Panaguring Pandiwa Halimbawa: Tumalon ang bata. Pumitas ng talbos si Joan. 5. Panaguring Pang-abay Halimbawa: Ngayon ang alis namin. Ganito ang paluluto ng yema. Karaniwang-Ayos ng Pangungusap – likas ng kayarian ng pangungusap sa Filipino na mauna ang panaguri sa paksa. Ginagamit ito sa pang-araw-araw na usapan. Halimbawa: Nakabili ng dyip ang Tatay. Naglaba kami ng mga damit sa sapa. Di Karaniwang-Ayos ng Pangungusap – higit na gamitin sa mga pormal na sitwasyong komunikatibo, tulad ng pulong, sa hukuman, o pakikipag-usap sa mga pinuno. Halimbawa: Ako ay naatasang mamuno ngayon. Sila ay maghahain ng reklamo laban sa Kapitan ng barangay. Ang Wastong Gamit ng Salita Ng at Nang 47
Gamit ng NG ginagamit bilang pantukoy Halimbawa: Nag-aaral ng Ilokano si Sonia. ginagamit bilang pang-ukol na ang katumbas sa ingles ay with Halimbawa: Hinampas niya ng payong ang aso. ginagamit bilang pang-ukol na ang katumbas ay sa Halimbawa: Magsisiuwi ng Pilipinas ang magagaling na doktor. Gamit ng NANG
ginagamit na pangatnig sa hugnayang pangungusap bilang panimula ng katulong na sugnay o sugnay na di makapag-iisa Halimbawa: Nang siya ay dumating, dumagsa ang tao.
ginagamit bilang pang-abay na nanggaling sa “na” na inangkupan ng “ng” kayat nagiging “nang” Halimbawa: Nagbalita nang malakas ang aking kaibigan sa opisina.
May at Mayroon Gamit ng May
ginagamit ang may kung ang sumusunod na salita ay:
Pangngalan Halimbawa: May batang nahulog. Pandiwa Halimbawa: May sasayaw na babae mamayang gabi. Pang-uri Halimbawa: May bagong bahay na nasunog. Panghalip na paari Halimbawa: May kanya-kanya tayong alam. Pantukoy na mga Halimbaa: May mga batang pupunta dito mamaya. Pang-ukol na sa Halimbawa: May sa-kalabaw ang boses ng taong iyan. Gamit ng Mayroon sinusundan ng panghalip na palagyo Halimbawa: Mayroon kaming dadaluhang pulong bukas. 48
sinusundan ng isang kataga Halimbawa: Mayroon ding pulong ang kababaihan. ginagamit sa patalinghagang kahulugan Halimbawa: Si Mayor Favila ang mayroon sa lahat. Subukin at Subukan subukin – “pagsusuri o pagsisiyasat sa uri, lakas o kakayahan ng isang bagay o tao.” subukan – “tingnan kung ano ang ginagawa ng isang tao o ng mga tao.” Halimbawa: Subukin mong gamitin ang sabon na ito. Sunubukan nila ang disiplina ng mga mag-aaral. Pahirin at Pahiran pahirin – pag-aalis o pagpawi pahiran – paglalagay ng bagay Halimbawa: Pahirin mo ang dumi sa iyong mukha. Pahiran mo ng pulang pintura ang gate. Walisin at Walisan walisin – pandiwang pokus sa layon. walisan – pandiwang pokus sa ganapan. Halimbawa: Walisin mo ang mga tuyong dahon sa bakuran. Walisan mo ang bakuran. Maliban at Bukod maliban – (except o aside) may kahulugang matangi sa bagay na binanggit ay wala nang iba. bukod – (in addition to o besides) karagdagang sa mga bagay na binanggit. Halimbawa: Maliban sa lupa, wala na siyang maiiwan sa nag-iisang anak. Bukod sa lupa, may bahay pa siyang maiiwan sa nag-iisang anak. Kung at Kong Gamit ng Kung ginagamit na pangatnig sa mga sugnay na di makapag-iisa sa mga pangungusap na hugnayan Halimbawa: Kung siya’y narito, tayo’y magiging magulo. Gamit ng Kong
buhat sa panghalip na ko ang kong at nilalagyan lamang ng pang-angkop na ng sa pakikiugnay sa salitang sumusunod: Halimbawa: Ipinagtapat kong nangyari. Din at Rin; Daw at Raw; Doon at Roon
49
Gamit ng din, daw, doon ginagamit kapag ang nauunang salita ay nagtatapos sa katinig maliban sa w at y Halimbawa: Napanood din nila ang pelikula. Napanood daw nila ang pelikula. Napanood doon nila ang pelikula. Gamit ng rin, raw, roon
ginagamit kapag ang nauunang salita ay nagtatapos sa patinig. Ang w at y ay itinutuing na malapatinig. Samakatuwid, ang rin, raw, roon ay ginagamit kapag ang sinusundang salita ay nagtatapos sa mga titik na ito. Halimbawa: Himala rin ang kailangan niya. Kaliwete raw ang dalaga. Umuwi roon ang kanyang asawa. Ika at IkaGamit ng ika ginagamit bilang panlapi sa bilang na isinusulat bilang salita Halimbawa: ikatlong taon Ikalimang araw Gamit ng ika ginagamit ang ginitlingan na “ika” bilang panlapi kung mismong bilang ang isusulat. Halimbawa: ika-25 ng Enero Ika-5 taon Maka at MakaGamit ng maka ginagamit ang “maka” na walang gitling kung pangngalang pambalana ang kasunod na salita Halimbawa: Naglunsad ng poetry reading ang mga makabayan. Gamit ng maka ginagamit ang may gitling na “maka-“ kapag sinusundan ng pangngalang pantangi Halimbawa: Maka-Nora ang mga nanonood ng kanyang mga pelikula. Gawin at Gawan ginagamit ang mga panlapi -in/-hin sa mga pandiwang pokus sa layon Halimbawa: Gawin mo ang sa tingin mo ay tama. ginagamit ang panlaping -an/-han sa mga pandiwang pokus sa direksyon Halimbawa: Subukan mong gawan siya ng mabuti. Ang Wikang Filipino sa 1987 Konstitusyon ng Republika ng Pilipinas Artikulo XIV – Edukasyon, Syensya at Teknolohiya, Mga Sining, Kultura, at 50
Isports Wika Seksyon 6. Ang wikang pambansa ng Pilipinas ay Filipino. Samantalang nalilinang ito, ito ay dapat na payabungin at pagyamanin pa salig sa umiiral na wika sa Pilipinas at sa iba pang mga wika. Alinsunod sa mga tadhana ng batas at sang-ayon sa nararapat na maaaring ipasya ng Kongreso, dapat magsagawa ng mga hakbangin ang Pamahalaan upang ibunsod at puspusang itaguyod ang paggami ng Filipino bilang midyum ng opisyal na komunikasyon at bilang wika ng pagtuturo sa sistemang pangedukasyon. Seksyon 7. Ukol sa mga layunin ng komunikayon at pagtuturo, ang mga wikang opisyal ng Pilipinas ay Filipino at, hangga’t walang ibang itinatadhana ang batas, Ingles. Ang mga wikang panrehiyon ay pantulong na mga wikang opisyal sa mga rehiyon at magsisilbi na pantulong na mga wikang panturo roon. Dapat itaguyod nang kusa at opsyonal ang Kastila at Arabic. Seksyon 8. Ang Konstitusyong ito ay dapat ipahayag sa Filipino at Ingles at dapat isalin samga pangunahing wikang panrehiyon, Arabic at Kastila. Seksyon 9. Dapat magtatag ang Kongreso ng isang komisyon ng wikang pambansa na binubuo ng mga kinatawan ng iba’t ibang mga rehiyon at mga disiplina na magsasagawa, mag-uugnay at magtataguyod ng mga pananaliksik sa Filipino at iba pang mga wika para sa kanilang pagpapaunlad, pagpapalaganap at pagpapanatili. Pagbasa Mga papanaw ukol sa pagbasa:
Ang pagbasa ay isang masalimuot na prosesong pangkaisipan kung saan ang mambabasa’y aktibong nagpaplano, nagdedesisyon at nag-uugnay ng mga kasanayan at istratehiyang nakatutulong sa pagunawa. Ang pagbasa ay isang kompleks na gawaing kinapapaloooban ng may kamalayan at walang kamalayang paggamit ng iba’t ibang estratehiya, kasama na ang mga estratehiya sa paglutas ng suliranin upang makabuo ng modelo ng kahulugang ninanais ipahatid ng awtor (Jonhston, 1983). Ang pagbasa’y proseso ng pamimili ng mga pahiwatig pangwika batay sa ekspektasyon ng bumabasa. Habang ang bahagi ng impormasyon ay nakikilala, nakagagawa ang mambabasa ng pansamantalang desisyon o hinuha na patutunayan niya, iwawaksi o pagtitibayin habang bumabasa (Kenneth Goodman, 1976). Dahil magkaugnay ang pagbasa at pag-iisip, binanggit ni Mikuleckey (1990) ang ginawang pagtutulad nina Kintsch at Van Dijk (1978), Rumelhart at Ortony (1977) at Winograd (1977), sa pagbasa sa pagpoproseso ng impormasyon upang maunawaan kung paano nag-iisip at umuunawa ang isang tao. Ayon sa kanila, dalawang aspekto ng “human information processing system” ang nagkakatulungan kapag nagbabasa ang isang tao: o Concept Driven o Itaas-Pababa – kapag ang bumabasa ay higit na nakatuon sa kug ano ang alam niya upang maintindihan ang binabasa. o Data Driven o Ibaba-Pataas – kapag higit na umaasa ang bumabasa sa mga impormasyong tekstwal.
Ang Mapanuring Pagbasa 51
Ang mapanuring pagbasa ay isang halimbawa ng marahan at maingat na pagbasa na nangangailangan ng masusing prosesong pangkognitibo. Pangunahing layunin nito ay malayang pag-iisip at kasanayan sa pagsusuri a pagtataya.
Mga Kasanayan sa Mapanuring Pagbasa 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Paghinuha sa maaaring mangyari Pagpapangkat ng mga ideya Paghahambing at pagtutulad Pagtatangi ng katotohanan sa palagay/opinyon Pagbuo ng konklusyon Pagbibigay ng sanhi at bunga Pagkakasunud-sunod ng mga ideya Paglalagom Pagtukoy at pagpapahalaga sa katangian ng tauhan Pagsusuri ng mga impormasyon Pagpapakahulugan sa matatalinghagang pahayag Pagpapakahulugan sa mga pahiwatig ng pahayag Pagtukoy sa magkakaugnay na ideya/konsepto Pagtukoy sa suliraning tinutukoy sa binasa Pagbibigay reaksyon sa himig at tono ng seleksyon
Proseso ng Pagbasa
Ang pagkuha ng impormasyon ay di lamang nakakamit sa pagbasa ng mga nakalimbag na sagisag. Mayroon ding mga impormasyong ginagamit ang bumabasa na nasa kanyang isipan na kanyang binabalikan kung kailangan niya sa pagbasa ng teksto. Ito ay ang mga di biswal na impormasyon ng binubuo ng datihang kaalaman (prior knowlegde).
Teoryang Iskema sa Pagbasa
Ginagalugad ng mambabasa ang mga nakaimbak o nakalagay niyang network ng mga abstraktong ideya sa kanyang isipan upang humanap ng iskema na tumutugma sa mga elemento o impormasyong taglay ng teksto (Anderson, 1985). Habang bumabasa, patuloy na naaapektuhan ng makabuluhang iskemang nagising ang pagpoproseso ng impormasyon. Sa pamamagitan ng nagising na iskema, naghihinuha ang mambabasa ng mga impormasyong semantika, sintaktika at leksikal upang makabuo ng kahulugan.
Metakognisyon sa Pagbasa
Pagkakaroon ng kamalayan, kaalaman at kasanayan sa pagkontrol sa sariling proseso ng pag-iisip o pag-unawa. Ang metakognisyon ay ang mataas na kasanayang pampag-iisip na kinapapalooban ng aktibong pagkontrol sa mga prosesong kognitiv na napapaloob sa pagkatuto (Livingston, 1996). Sa pamamagitan ng metakognisyon, nalalampasan ang kognisyon dahil nagagawa nitong malinan sa mambabasa ang may kamalayang paggamit ng mga estratehiyang kognitibo at pahalagahan sa halip na 52
simpleng gamitin lamang ang mga ito. Binibigyang-diin ng metakognisyon ang malawakang kontrol sa mga proseso sa halip na sa mga tiyak na estratehiya o gawain (McNeil, 1987). o Tatlong Uri ng Prosesong Metakognitiv Ayon kay McNeil: Kaalaman ng mambabasa sa kanyang sariling kahinaan at kalakasan sa pagbasa; Kaaalam kung alin estratehiya ang angkop na gamitin ayon sa sitwasyon; at Kalaaman ng mambabasa sa pagsubaybay sa kanyang pag-unawa o pagkaalam kung kailan siya di na nakauunawa.
Komunikasyon
Aktibong proseso ng paghahatid at pagkuha ng mensahe at tugon (feedback) sa pamamagitan ng interaksyon ng tagahatid at tagatanggap. Ang komunikasyon ay ang pagpapahayag, pagpapahatid o pagbibigay ng impormasyon sa mabisang paraan. Ito ay isang paraan ng pakikiugnayan, pakikipagpalagayan, o pakikipag-unawaan. Ang komunikasyon ay proseso ng pagbibigay (giving) at pagtanggap (receiving). Kung kahulugang komunikatibo ang susuriin sa isang pahayag, tiyak na iuugnay ito sa tungkulin ng komunikasyon at ang kaugnay na gawi ng pagsasalita tulad ng ipinakikita ng sumusunod na tsart ni Gordon Wells.
Tungkulin ng Komunikasyon Gawi ng Pagsasalita (Functions of Communication) (Speech or Commmucation Arts) A. Pagkontrol sa kilos o gawi ng iba Pakikiusap, pag-uutos, pagmumungkahi, (Controlling Function pagpupunyagi, pagtanggi, pagbibigay babala B. Pagbabahagi ng damdamin Pakikiramay, pagpuri, pangsang-ayon, (Sharing feelings) pahayag, paglibak, paninisi, pagsalungat C. Pagbibigay o pagkuha ng impormasyon Pag-uulat, pagpapaliwanag, pagtukoy, (Getting factual information) pagtatanong, pagsagot D. Pagpapanatili sa pakikipag-kapuwa at Pagbati, pagpapakilala, pagbibiro, pgkakaroon ng interaksyon sa kapuwa pagpapasalamat, paghingi ng paumanhin (Ritualizing Function) E. Pangangarap at paglikha Pagkukuwento, pagsasadula, pagsasatao, (Imagining/Creating Function) paghula Panitikan
Ang salitang Tagalog na “panitikan” ay galing sa unlaping PANG- (na nagiging PAN- kapag ang kasunod na ugat ay nagsisismula sa d, l, r, s, t); sa ugat ng TITIK (letra) na nawawalan ng simulang T sa pagkakasunod sa PAN-; at sa hulaping –AN, samakatwid: pang * titik * an. Ang salitang ito ang panumbas ng Tagalog sa “literatura” o “literature” na parehong batay sa ugat na Lating “litera” na ang kahuluga’y “letra” o titik. Ayon kay Hno. Azarias, sa kanyang aklat na “Pilosopia ng Literature”, ang Panitikan ay pagpapahayag ng mga damdamin ng tao hinggil sa mga bagay-bagay sa daigdig, sa pamumuhay, sa lipunan at pamahalaan, at sa kaugnayan ng kaluluwa sa Bathalang lumikha. “Nasusulat na tala ng pinakamabuting kaisipan at damdamin ng tao.” (W.J. Jong)
Anyo ng Panitikan
Tuluyan (prosa) – maluwag na pagsasama-sama ng mga salita sa katutubong takbo ng pangungusap. Halimbawa, anekdota, alamat, maikling katha, kathambuhay, sanaysay, talambuhay, dula, at iba pa. 53
Patula – pagbubuo ng pahayag sa pamamagitan ng salitang binilang sa pantig (6, 8, 12, 16, o 18 sa taludtod) at pinapagtugma-tugma sa mga dulo ng mga taludtod sa loob ng isang estropa (stanza). Halimbawa, liriko, oda, pastoral, kurido, tulang pasalaysay, tulang padula, soneto, at iba pa.
Matandang Panitikan Ang matandang panitikan ay inuuri sa dalawa:
Pasalita – kabilang sa panitikang hindi nakasulat ang mga pahayag na binubuo ng maiikling taludturan tulad ng salawikain, kasabihan, bugtong, mga talinghaga at mga awiting-bayan. Pasulat – sa paglipas ng panahon, ang panitikang ito’y nagpasalin-salin sa bibig ng mga mamamayan; ito ay napagyaman, hanggang sa naging maunlad ang panulatan at palimbagan at napatala na sa mga aklat – mga akdang kababakasan ng nakalipas na panahon..
Salawikain o Sawikain at Kasabihan – karamihan sa mga ito ay may impluwensya ng Arabe, Malay at ng Indo-Tsina. Salawikain o Sawikain – nagtataglay ng talinghaga. Nagsisilbing mga panuntunan sa buhay – mga bata ng kaugalian at patnubay ng kagandahang-asal. Binubuo ito ng mga taludtod na karaniwa ay dadalawa, may sukat at tugma at nagbibigay-aral. Halimbawa: Ang bato sakdal man ng tigas Tubig na malambot ang nakaaagnas. Di man makita ang apoy Sa aso matutunton. Ang inahing mapagkupkop Di man anak isusukob. Sabi o Kasabihan – hango sa karunungan ng matatandang may mga karanasan sa buhay. May himig paalaala, kung minsa’y parang nanunudyo, ang mga ito’y hindi gumagamit ng malalalim na mga talinghaga. Payak lamang ang kahulugan ng mga ito na kasasalaminan din ng gawi at ugali ng tao. Halimbawa: Anak na di paluhain Ina ang patatangisin.
Walang sumisira sa bakal Kundi kanya ring kalawang.
Nasa banig Lumipat sa sahig.
Ang maniwala sa sabi Walang bait na sarili.
Kuwalta na Naging bato pa. Bugtong, Talinghala, Tanaga – sa aklat na Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (1754) nina Padre Juan de Noceda at Pedro de San Lucar, maraming maiikling matulaing pagpapahayag na kinabibilangan ng bugtong, talinghaga, at tanaga. 54
Bugtong – tugmang naghahamon sa tao na mag-isip nang madalian nang walang pagbabatayan kundi ang inilalarawan ng mga salita. May layunin itong mapasigla ang guniguni at mapatalas ang isip. Halimbawa: Di matingalang bundok Darak ang nakakamot. (BALAKUBAK) Kakabiyak na niyog Magdamag inilibot. (BUWAN)
Kinalag ang balangkas Sumayaw nang ilagpak. (TRUMPO) Isang balong malalim, Punung-puno ng patalim. (BIBIG)
Talinghaga – isang payak na metaporang may walong pantig sa bawat taludtod. Ito ay may sukat at tugma. Halimbawa: Labong ng kawayang bagong tumutubo Langit na mataas ang itinuturo; Kapag tumanda na at saka lumago, Lupang pinagmulan, doon din ang yuko. Tanaga – ayon kina Noceda at Sanlukar, isang tulang may apat na taludtod na pipituhing-pantig at naghahamon din sa isip. Halimbawa: Ang tubig ma’y malalim Malilirip kung lipdin Itong budhing magaling Maliwag paghanapin.
Baging akong kalatkat Kaya ako nataas Sa balite kumalat Nakinabang ng taas.
Bulong – tulang ginagamit sa panggagamot o pang-iingkanto. Halimbawa: Huwag magagalit, kaibigan, Aming pinuputol lamang Ang sa ami’y napag-utusan.
Tabi po, tabi po Huwag pong manununo.
Awiting-bayan – tulad ng alinmang tula, ang mga ito ay may sukat at tugma. Di nakilala ang mga kumatha ng maraming awiting bayan. Itinala ni Epifanio de los Santos Cristobal ang sumusunod na awiting-bayan: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
suliranin (awit sa paggaod) talindaw (awit sa pamamangka) diona (awit sa panliligaw at pagkakasal) oyayi o ayayi (awit sa paghehele) kumintang (awit sa pakikidigma; nang lumao’y naging awit sa pag-ibig) sambotani (awit sa pagtatagumpay) 55
7. kundiman (awit ng pag-ibig) 8. dalit (himno) Epiko – mga tulang-salaysay tungkol sa mga bayani at sa kanilang kabayanihan. Ang mga bayaning ito ay tila mga bathala sa pagtataglay ng kapangyarihan. Ang mga epiko ay paawit kung isalaysay. Sinasabing ang mga epiko ng mga Bisaya, Tagalog, Iluko, Ifugao, at Bikol ay napasulat sa Alibata, samantala ang epiko ng Mindanao ay nakasulat sa Sanskrito. Halimbawa: 1. Hudhud (Ifugao) 2. Ibalon (Bikol) 3. Biag ni Lam-ang (Ilokano) 4. Maragtas (Hiligaynon-Iraya)
Akdang Panrelihiyon 1. Doctrina Cristiana – Ito ang kauna-unahang aklat na nilimbag sa Pilipinas. Nilimbag ito sa pamamagitan ng silograpiya noong 1593. 2. Nuestra Señora del Rosario – sinulat ito at inilimbag ni Pari Blancas de San Jose, O.P., noong 1602 sa Imprenta ng Santo Tomas. 3. Barlaan at Josaphat – sinulat ito ni Pari Antonio de Borja, S.J., at inilathala noong 1708 at muli noong 1712. Ito ay batay sa sa mga salaysay mula sa Bibliya. Ipinalalagay na ito ang kauna-unahang nobelang Tagalog kahit salin lamang. 4. Pasyon – sa panahon ng kuwaresma, ang buhay at pagpapakasakit ng Panginoong Hesukristo ay inaawit. 5. Mga Dalit kay Maria – sabayang inaawit bilang handog kung buwan ng Mayo sa pag-aalay ng bulaklak sa Mahal na Birhen. Pari Modesto de Castro – dahil sa kanyang Urbana at Feliza, tinagurian siyang “Ama ng Tuluyang Klasika sa Tagalog.” Ang Dula Panunuluyan – isang uri ng dulang pangrelihiyon na namalasak noong panahon ng Kastila. Ang pinakadiwa nito ay ang paghahanap ng bahay na matutuluyan ng mag-asawang San Jose at Birheng Maria noong bisperas ng Pasko. Senakulo – isang uri ng dulang makarelihiyon na ang pinakamanuskrito ay ang pasyon. Itinatanghal ito kung Mahal na Araw, kadalasa’y nagsisimula sa Lunes Santo at nagtatapos ng Biyernes Santo, kung minsan pa’y umaabot ng Linggo ng Pagkabuhay. Ito ay itinatanghal sa entablado. Tinatawag din itong “pasyon sa tanghalan”. Moro-Moro – itinatanghal sa entablado. Dalawang pangkat ang naghaharap dito: ang mga Kristiyano at ang mga moro. Tinawag itong comedia de capa y espada na sa kalauna’y naging kilala sa palasak na tawag na “moro-moro”. Nasusulat sa anyong tula, pumapaksa sa paglalaban ng mga Kristiyano at mga di-Kristiyanong tinawag ng mga Kastilang “moro”. Laging magtatagumpay ang mga Kristiyano sa mga paglalaban. Tibag – ito ay may kaugnayan sa senakulo sapagkat ito ay nauukol sa paghanap sa krus na kinamatayan ni Kristo sa bundok ng Kalbaryo. Ang mga tauhan dito ay sina Emperatris Elena at ang kanyang anak na si 56
Emperador Constantino. Tinawag na tibag sapagkat ito ay nauukol sa pagtibag ng bundok ng Kalbaryo sa paghanap ng krus. Mga Unang Tula Ang unang tula sa Tagalog ay sinulat ni Tomas Pinpin at kasamang inilimbag sa kanyang aklat na Librong Pag-aaralan nang manga Tagalog sa Uicang Castila. Ang tula ay binubuo ng magkasalit na taludtod sa Tagalog at Kastila sa layuning matutuhan ang Kastila. Felipe de Jesus – ipinalalagay ng mga mananaliksik na ang kritikong si Felipe de Jesus ng San Miguel, Bulakan, ang unang tunay na makatang Tagalog. Mga Tulang Romansa Kurido - tulang pasalaysay na may sukat na walong pantig sa taludtod at may mga paksang kababalaghan at maalamat (karamiha’y halaw at hiram sa paksang galing sa Europa) na dala rito ng mga Kastila. Inaawit ito nang mabilis o “allegro”. May walong pantig ang taludturan. (Halimbawa: Ibong Adarna). Awit – isang uri ng tulang binubuo ng labindalawang pantig bawat taludtod ng isang saknong at kung inaawit ay marahan o “andante”. (Halimbawa: Florante at Laura) Mga Manunulat ng Kurido at Awit Ananias Zorilla – may akda ng awit na Dama Ines at Prinsipe Florinio. Jose de la Cruz (1740 – 1829) – kilala sa sagisag na Huseng Sisiw. Siya ang kauna-unahang mag-aayos ng tula. Tinawag siyang Huseng Sisisw sapagkat sisiw ang karaniwang pabuya na ibinibigay ng nagpapagawa sa kanya ng mga tula ng pag-ibig at ng mga nagpapaayos sa kanya ng tula. Kumatha ng Historia Famosa ni Bernardo Carpio, Doce Pares de Francia, Rodrigo de Villas, Adela at Florante at Flora at Clavela. Francisco Baltazar (Balagtas) 1788 -1862 – Isinilang sa Panginay. Bigaa, Bulacan noong ika-2 ng Abril, 1788. Sumulat ng Florante at Laura na inialay niya sa kanyang iniibig na si Maria Asuncion Rivera (M.A.R.) na tinawag niyang si “Celia” sa akda. Karagatan – isang paligsahan sa tula na nilalaro bilang parangal sa isang namatay. Ang mga kasali rito ay umuupo nang pabilog at nasa gitna ang hari. Duplo – isa pang paligsahan sa pagtula na karaniwang ginaganap sa bakuran ng namatayan, sa ikasiyam na gabi matapos mailibing ang namatay, bilang panlibang sa mga naulila. Ensilada – isa pang paligsahan sa pagtulana ginagawa bilang pang-aliw sa namatayan. Ito ay ginagawa gabigabi habang nagsisiyam ang namatay. Panahon ng Pagbabago at Paghihimagsik Herminigildo Flores – isang manunulat sa panhon ng himagsikan. Sa kanyang mga sinulat ay lalong bantog ang mahabang tulang may pamagat na, “Hibik ng Pilipinas sa Inang Espanya”. Mga Pangunahing Manunulat-Propagandista
57
Jose P. Rizal (1861 – 1896) – Naipalimbag niya sa Berlin ang nobelang Noli Me Tangere (1887). Noong 1890, tinapos niya ang ikalawang nobela, ang El Filibusterismo sa Ghent, Belgium. Gumamit si Rizal ng mga sagisag na “Dimas-Alang” at “Laong-Laan”. Si Rizal ay nakapagsasalita ng dalawampu’t dalawang wika. Marcelo H. del Pilar – bilang pangunahing pinuno ng Kilusang Propaganda, ipinakita niya kaagad ang pagtutol sa mga pamamalakad ng mga Kastila. Lantad ang gayon niyang damdamin sa pahayagang Diariong Tagalog, na itinatag at pinamatnugutan niya noong 1882. Noong Nobyembre 15, 1889, napasalin sa kanya ang pagiging patnugot ng La Solidaridad. Gumamit siya ng mga sagisag tulad ng “Dolores Manapat”, “Piping Dilat”, “Maitalaga”, “Kupang”, “Carmelo”, “L.O. Crame” at “Pupdoh”. Mga Akda ni del Pilar: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
“Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa” – salin ng tulang “Amor Patrio” ni Rizal. Caiigat Cayo (1888) Dasalan at Tocsohan (1888) Ang Kadakilaan ng Dios Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Pilipinas (1889) Dupluhan…Dalit…mga Bugtong…
Graciano Lopez Jaena (1856-1896) – itinatag niya sa Espanya ang Circulo Hispano-Filipino; sumulat ng mga ulat para sa Circulo. Noong 1889, itinatag niya ang La Solidaridad at naging unang patnugot nito. Nang mapalipat kay M. del Pilar ang tungkulin ng patnugot, naging manunulat na lamang siya ng pahayagan. Nagkubli siya sa pangalang “Diego Laura”. Sa kanyang panahon, higit siyang kinilalang orador kaysa manunulat. Sinulat niya ang Fray Botod, isang maikling nobelang mapang-uyam na naglalarawan sa “kasibaan ng mga prayle”. Ang Fray Botod ay prayleng napakalakas kumain. Mariano Ponce (1863-1899) – gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Naning”, “Tikbalang”, “Kalipulako”. Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Mga Alamat ng Bulakan”, at ang dulang “Pagpugot kay Longino”. Antonio Luna (1866-1899) – parmasyutikong gumamit ng sagisag na Taga-ilog sa kanyang pag-akda. Marami siyang naiambag sa La Solidaridad. Kabilang sa mga akda niya ang “Noche Buena”, “La Tertulia Filipina”, “La Maestra de Mi Pueblo” at ang “Impresiones”. Pedro A. Paterno (1858-1911) – may-akda ng Ninay isang nobelang sosyolohiko. Ito ang unang nobelang sinulat sa Kastila ng isang Pilipino. Pascual Poblete (1858-1921) – nobelista, makata, mananalaysay at tinaguriang “Ama ng Pahayagan”. Siya ang nagtatag ng mga pahayagang El Resumen, El Grito del Pueblo at Ang Tinig ng Bayan. Siya rin ang kaunaunahang nagsalin sa Tagalog ng Noli Me Tangere. Jose Maria Panganiban (1865-1895) – sumulat ng mga sanaysay, lathalain at mga talumpati sa ilalim ng sagisag na Jomapa. Pedro Serrano Laktaw – leksikograpo at manunulat; isa ring pangunahing Mason. Siya ang unang sumulat ng Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (1889). Isabelo delos Reyes – nagtatag ng “Iglesia Filipina Independente”; nagtamo ng gantimpala sa Exposisyon sa Madrid, sa sinulat na “El Folklore Filipino”. Fernando Canon – kaklase ni Rizal sa Ateneo. Sumulat siya ng tula ukol kay Rizal. Sa mga tulang pang-Rizal nagsimula ang kanyang katanyagan. 58
Kapwa pintor naman sina Juan Luna at Felix Resureccion Hidalgo. Mga Akdang Mapanghimagsik Ang paghihimagsik laban sa mga Kastila ay pinagtampukan ng mga akda nina Bonifacio at Emilio Jacinto, mga akdang nasulat sa Tagalog, ang wikang opisyal ng Katipunan. Samantala, ang paghihimagsik laban sa mga Amerikano ay tinampukan naman ng mga akda nina Apolinario Mabini at Jose Palma. Andres Bonifacio (1863-1897) – kinilalang “Ama ng Demokrasyang Pilipino” kinilala rin siyang “Dakilang Plebyo”. Siya ay kasal kay Gregoria de Jesus, ang tinaguriang “Lakambini ng Katipunan”. Si Bonifacio ay gumamit ng mga sagisag na “Agap-ito Bagumbayan” at “May Pag-asa”. Mga Akda ni Bonifacio: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (tula) Sampung Utos Pahimakas (salin ng Mi Ultimo Adios ni Rizal) Mga Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Anak ng Bayan (dekalogo ng Katipunan) Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog (sanaysay) Katapusang Hibik ng Pilipinas (tulang tugon sa tula ni del Pilar na Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Pilipinas)
Emilio Jacinto (1875-1899) – kinilalang “Utak ng Katipunan” dahilan na rin sa kanyang katalinuhan. Sumulat ng Kartilya ng Katipunan. Ginamit niya sa pagsulat ang sagisag na “Dimas-Ilaw”; ginamit naman niyang pangalan bilang kasapi ng Katipunan ang “Pingkian”. Mga Akda ni Jacinto: 1. A La Patria (tulang hawig sa Mi Ultimo Adios ni Rizal) 2. A Mi Madre (isang oda) 3. Liwanag at Dilim (katipunan ng mga sanaysay) 4. Ang Tao ay Magkakapantay 5. Kalayaan Apolinario Mabini (1864-1903) – kilala sa bansag na “Dakilang Lumpo”. Tinaguriang siyang “Utak ng Himagsikan”. Bilang manunulat, marami siyang akda sa Kastila – mga akdang pampolitika, sosyolohiko, pampamahalaan at pilosopiko. Mga Akda ni Mabini: 1. La Revolucion Filipino 2. El Verdadero Decalogo (Ang Tunay na Dekalogo) Jose Palma (1876-1903) – kabilang sa mga manunulat sa panahon ng rebolusyon laban sa mga Amerikano. Ang tulang “Filipinas” ang makabuluhan niyang ambag sa panitikan. Ito ang naging titik ng musikang nalikha ni Julian Felipe. Pag-unlad ng Tula Unang Hati. Sa mga unang tatlumpu hanggang apatnapung taon ng pananakop ng mga Amerikano, ang mga makatang Pilipino ay mapapangkat sa dalawa: nakatatanda at nakababata. 59
1. Nakatatanda – kabilang sa nakatatanda sina Lope K. Santos, Pedro Gatmaitan, at Iñigo Ed. Regalado. Ang unang pangkat na ito ay aral sa Kastila. 2. Nakababata – sa nakababata naman ay sina Jose Corazon de Jesus, Teodoro Gener, Ildefonso Santos, Cirio H. Panganiban, Aniceto F. Silvestre at Amado V. Hernandez. Lope K. Santos (1879-1963) – tinatawag na “Ama ng Balarilang Pilipino”. May-akda ng Banaag at Sikat. Bilang makata, laging mababanggit kaugnay ng pangalan niya ang mga tulang “Ang Pangginggera”, “Puso’t Diwa”, “Mga Hamak na Dakila,” at “Sino Ka – Ako’y Si…” Pedro Gatmaitan – Ang kanyang mga tula ay napatanyag dahil sa hindi malayong paggunita sa mga kabayanihan ng mga bayani ng digmaan at ng himagsikan 1896. Nagkubli siya sa mga sagisag na “PipitPuso”, “Dante”, “Ernesto Salamisim” at “Alitaptap”. Nakilala ang kanyang “Tungkos ng Alaala”, isang katipunan ng kanyang mga natatanging tula. Ikalawang Hati. Sa panahong ito namayani ang mga nakababatang Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng Batute), Cirio Panganiban, Deogracias A. Rosario, Ildefonso Santos, Benigno Ramos at Aniceto Silvestre. “Ilaw at Panitik” – isang tanyag na samahang pangwika na natatag noon. Ang unang pangulo ng samahan ay si Jose Esperanza Cruz, naging patnugot ng Liwayway. Panahon din ito ng mga patimpalak sa pagtula at pagsulat ng tula, at sa mga ganitong pagkakataon ang mga makatang kasapi ng “Ilaw at Panitiki” ay naghalihalili sa pagkakamit ng unang gantimpala. Balagtasan – supling ng matandang duplo. Abril 6, 1924, idinaos ang kauna-unahang balagtasan. Ginanap iyon sa bulwagan ng Instituto de Mujeres, sa Kalye Tayuman, Tondo, Maynila. Ang pamagat ay “Bulaklak ng Lahing Kalinis-linisan”. Si Jose Corazon de Jesus ang lumagay na “Paruparo” at si Florentino Collantes naman ang sa “Bubuyog”. Si Sofia Enriquez naman ang mabangong “Kampupot” o Bulaklak ng Kalinisan, samantala si Lope K. Sntos ang siyang nag-lakandiwa. Si Jose Corazon de Jesus ang nanalo sa labanang iyon, ayon sa pasiya ng hurado. Naging unang Hari ng Balagtasan si Batute. Jose Corazon de Jesus – naging “Makata ng Pag-ibig” sa halalan ng mga mambabasa ng pahayagang Mithi noong 1916. Isa sa mga tanyag niyang tula ang “Isang Punongkahoy”. Florentino Collantes – naging katunggali ni Batute sa mga pagbabalagtasan. Naibigay sa kanya ang karangalang “Makata ng Bayan” kapanabay ng pagbibibay kay Lope K. Santos ng karangalang “Paham ng Wika”. Kabilang sa mga tula niya ang sumusunod: Ang Sawa, Sa Dakong Silangan, Ang Lumang Simbahan at Ang Tulisan. Iba Pang Makata Teodoro E. Gener – pangunahing tula niya ang “Subo ng Sinaing”, “Guro” at “Pag-ibig”. Aniceto F. Silvestre – makata ng damdamin. Ang kanyang tulang “Filipinas” ay ipinagwagi niya ng gantimpala sa tula sa isang patimpalak na Surian ng Wikang pambansa noong 1946. Teo S. Baylen – ang mga tula niya sa loob ng tatlumpung taon ay isina-aklat niya sa kanyang Tinig na Darating. Ang Pag-unlad ng Dula
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Ang dula ay isang sangay na panitikang naglalahad ng isang pangyayari o mga pangyayaring kinasasangkutan ng isa o dalawang pangunahing tauhan at ng iba pang mga katulong na tauhan na itinatanghal sa isang dulaan.
Sarsuwela – bilang panooring panlibangan, ay ipinakilala ng mga Kastila noong mga taong 1878-1879 ngunit di nagkaroon ng sapat na panahon upang umunlad at lumaganap. Kaagaw pa nito ang moro-moro na mas dinudunog ng mga mamamayan. Mga Nakilalang Mandudula Severino Reyes (1861-1942) – pangunahing manunulat ng sarsuwela si Severino Reyes. Kilala rin siya sa sagisag na “Lola Basyang” dahil sa kanyang mga kuwentong-bayan na inilathala sa Lingguhang Liwayway. Ang kanyang sarsuwelang Walang Sugat ang itinuturing na kanyang obra-maestra. Noong 1922, naging patnugot siya ng Liwayway. Patricio Mariano – isang mandudula, peryodista, kuwentista, nobelista at makata. Marami siyang nasulat na dula na kinabibilangan ng Anak ng Dagat, Ang Tulisan, Ang Dalawang Pag-ibigi, Ako’y Iyo Rin, at iba pa. Siya ng tinaguriang Dekano ng mga Mandudulang Tagalog. Hermogenes Ilagan – siya ang masasabing kaagaw ni Severino Reyes sa kasigasigan sa paglikha at pagtatanghal ng sarsuwela. Ang pinakatanyag niyang dula ay ang Dalagang Bukid. Julian Cruz Balmaseda – namumukod ang kanyang aral sa pag-iimpok sa sulang Ang Piso ni Anita. Ito ang dulang nagtamo ng unang gantimpala sa timpalak ng Kawanihan ng Koreo; sa kanyang Sa Bunganga ng Pating, binaka niya ang sakit na nililikha ng salaping patubuan. Aurelio Tolentino (1868-1913) – dalubhasa sa paggamit ng tatlong wika, Pampango, Tagalog at Kastila. Maraming dula siyang nasulat tulad ng Bagong Kristo, isang sulang sosyolohiko; Sumpaan, isang romantikong sarsuwelang may tatlong yugto. Ngunit higit sa lahat ng mga dula niya, ang nakilala’y ang kanyang Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas. Isang alegoriya ang dulang ito ay naglalahad sa pamamagitan ng mga simbolikong tauhan na pinagdadaanan ng Pilipinas. Juan K. Abad – nang magsimula ang himagsikan sinunog ng lahat ni Abad ang kanyang mga akdang nanunuligsa sa pamahalaan at sa mga prayle at pagkaraa ay umanib siya sa Katipunan. Hinarap ni Abad ang pagbaka sa comedia sa paniniwalang ito ay nakakalason sa isipan ng mga Pilipino. Ang Pag-unlad ng Nobela
Ang kauna-unahang nobelang Tagalog na ipinalimbag sa anyong aklat ay ang Nena at Neneng ni Valeriano Hernandez Peña; inilimbag ito noong 1905. Isusunod na sana ang Banaag at Sikat ni Lope K. Santos, na labis na pinananabikang mabasang muli, subalit dahilan sa kakapalan nito, nauna ang Miminsan Akong Umibigi ni Valeriano Hernandez Peña na lumabas noong 1906. Sumunod na rin nang taon din iyon ang Banaag at Sikat ni Santos. Ang Kathambuhay o nobela ay isang sangay ng panitikang naglalahad ng maraming pangyayaring kinasasangkutan ng isa o dalawang pangunahing tauhan at iba pang katulong na mga tauhan at ang buong pangyayari ay sumasaklaw nang higit na mahabang panahon kaysa maikling katha.
Ang Panahong Ginto ng Nobelang Tagalog
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Panahong saklaw ng unang dalawampung taon, nasulat ang mga nobelang nagtataglay ng mga katangiang kasalaminan ng panahon at umayon sa layuning “makapagturo ng mabuti, makapaghimaton ng pag-iwas sa mga sakuna at kasawian sa buhay, makapagbinhi ng mabuting kaugalian at makapagpaunlad ng isip.” Sa palagay ni Regalado, “hindi maitatanggi ng sino man na ang nobekang Tagalog ay nagkaroon ng Panahong Ginto…at ang panahong iyon ay sumasaklaw sa mga taong buhat sa 1905 hanggang 1921.”
Ang Maikling Kuwento
Ang anyo ng maikling kuwento ay nakilala lamang sa Pilipinas ng mgaunang taon ng ika-20 siglo nang narito na ang mga Amerikano. Ang mga unang anyo ng maikling kuwento ay ang (1) dagli, na ang himig ay nangangaral. Ang mga ito’y namumuna at nanunuligsa, at (2) pasingaw o munting kasaysayan na nagpapahayag ng pag-ibig sa mga nililigawan o hinahangaang paraluman. Ang maikling kuwento ay isang sangay ng panitikang naglalahad ng isang natatangi at mahalagang pangyayari sa buhay ng isang pangunahing tauhan s aisang takdang panahon.
Sangkap ng Maikling Kwento: 1. Paksang-diwa o tema – pangunahing kaisipan ng kuwento, ng isang pangkalahatang pagmamasid sa buhay ng may-akda na nais niyang ipabatid sa mambabasa. 2. Banghay – balangkas o istruktura ng mga pangyayaring kinapapalooban ng mga kilos, pagkahubog ng tauhan, tunggalian at mga hadlang, at mga detalye na buhat sa simula ay mabilis sa pag-akyat sa kasukdulan. Ito ay mabilis na sinusundan ng wakas. 3. Katimpian – higit na masining ang matimping paglalarawan ng damdamin. 4. Paningin – pananaw na pinagdaraanan ng mga pangyayari sa isang katha. Ito ang kahulugan ng paningin. Apat na paraan ng pagsasalaysay ng kuwento ayon sa paningin ng nagpapahayag: a. Paningin sa Unang Panauhan – sumasanib ang may-akda sa isa sa mga tauhan na siyang nagsasalaysay sa unang panauhan. b. Paningin sa Pangatlong Panauhan – pangatlong panauhan ang ginamit ng manunulat sa pagsasalaysay ng mga pangyayari sa kuwento. Ang isipan at damdamin ng mga tauhan ay maaari niyang utusan. c. Itinakdang Obhetibong Paningin – maaaring ang pangunahing tauhan o ang alin man sa mga katulong na tauhan ang tauhang nagsasalaysay. d. Obhetibong Paningin – ang tagapagsalaysay ay nagsisilbing isang kamera na malatang nakalilibot subalit maitatala lamang nito ang tuwirang nakikit at naririnig. 5. Pahiwatig – nagiging malikhain ang mga mambabasa sapagkat naiiwan sa kanyang guniguni o imahinasyon sa mga pangyayaring nagaganap o maaaring maganap sa kuwento. 6. Simbolo – ito ang mga salita na kapag binanggit sa isang akda ay nag-iiwan ng iba’t ibang pagpapakahulugan sa mambabasa. Halimbawa, ang puti ay kumakatawan sa kalinisan o kawagasan. Deogracias A. Rosario – Ama ng Maikling Kuwentong Tagalog Sanaysay
Naglalarawan ng mga kuru-kuro at pansariling kaisipan ng isang manunulat. maaaring maanyo (pormal) at maaari namang malaya (di-pormal o personal).
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Ang sanaysay ay
Ang salitang sanaysay ay salitang-likha ni Alejandro G. Abadilla (AGA). Ayon sa kanya, ito ay pinagsanib na mga salitang pagsasalaysay ng isang sanay o nakasulat na karanasan ng isang sanay sa pagsasalaysay. Di gaya ng maraming salitang-likha, ang sanaysay ay dagling tinanggap ng bayan.
Dalawang uri ng Sanaysay: 1. maanyo o pormal – tanging layunin nito ay magbigay ng kaalaman 2. malaya o di-pormal – higit na kaaliw-aliw na basahin dahil sa ang mga salitang ginamit ay madaling maintindihan at ang paksa ay karaniwan. Talambuhay
Naglalahad ng mahahalagang pangyayari sa buhay o kasaysayan ng isang tao. Kapag ang talambuhay ay nauukol sa taong siyang sumulat, ito ay tinatawag na pansariling talambuhay (autobiography).
Pangulong Tudling
Naglalahad ng kuru-kuro ng patnugot ng isang pahayagan. Ang mga pitak ng mga kolumnista ay kahawig ng pangulong tudling, lamang, ang kuru-kuro ng patnugot ay higit na matimbang o may bigat at siyang kuru-kuro na ng pahayagan.
Panahon ng Hapones (1942-1944)
Marami ang nagsasabing “gintong panahon” daw ng maikling kuwento at ng dulang Tagalog ang panahong ito. Sa panahong ito, halos ipinagbawal ang Ingles ng mga mananakop kung kaya’t naging luwalhati naman ng wikaing Tagalog ang pangyayaring ito. Sa pangangasiwa ng Surian ng Wikang Pambansa, ang pinakamahusay na maikling kuwento ng panahong iyon ay pinili. Ang tatlong kuwentong nanguna ay ang mga sumusunod: “Lupang Tinubuan” ni Narciso G. Reyes, “Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa” ni Liwayway Arceo, at “Lunsod, Nayon at Dagat-dagatan” ni N.V.M. Gonzales. Tatlong uri ng tula ang namalasak noong panahon ng Hapon: Karaniwang anyo, malayang taludturan, na ang pinakamarami ay haiku at tanaga.
Tanaga – isang uri ng tulang Tagalog noong unang panahon na sa katipiran ng pamamaraan ay maihahalintulad sa Haiku ng mga Hapones, bagamat lalong maikli ang haiku. Ang tanaga ay may sukat at tugma. Ang bawat taludtod ay may pitong (7) pantig. Halimbawa: Palay Palay siyang matino Nang humangi’y yumuko, Ngunit muling tumayo; Nagkabunga ng ginto. Gawad Pambansang Alagad ng Sining (Panitikan) Amado V. Hernandez Jose Garcia Villa
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1973 1973 63
Nick Joaquin Carlos P. Romulo Francisco Arcellana Levi Celerio N.V.M. Gonzalez Edith L. Tiempo F. Sionil Jose Virgilio S. Almario Alejandro R. Roces
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1976 1982 1990 1997 (Musika at Panitikan) 1997 1999 2001 2003 2003
Mga Teorya/Pananaw Pampanitikan Teorya
Ito ang pormulasyon ng palilinawing mga prinsipyo ng mga tiyak na penomena, paniniwala, o ideya upang makalikha ng isang sistematikong paraan ng pagpapaliwanag ng mga ito.
Teoryang Pampanitikan
Ang pagbabalangkas ng mga prinsipyo na magpapaliwanag sa pinagmulan at kalikasan ng panitikan, ano ito ngayon at ano dapat ito, papaano ito nalikha at papaano ito nagagamit ng lipunan. Isang sistema ng mga kaisipan at mga kahalagahan na nagbibigay-kahulugan sa kalikasan at tungkulin ng panitikan pati na sa proseso ng paglikhang masining, at mga layunin ng may-akda at ng tekstong pampanitikan.
Teoryang Klasisismo Pagtuklas at pagtanaw sa katotohanan, kagandahan, at kabutihan ang nilalayon ng klasisismo. Hinahangad nito na palawakin ang pananaw at pang-unawa ng matwid na tao, at makamtan yaong tinatawag na grandeur d’ame o pagkadakila ng pagkatao. At dahil ang tao ay sadyang may katutubong karupukan, kinakailangan din na ang panitikan ay makatulong sa paglilinis o pagpupurga sa kalooban at niloloob upang lalong makatulong sa pagkakamit ng kadakilaan ng katauhan. Teoryang Humanismo Walang higit pang kawili-wiling paksa kaysa tao. Kung pumasok man ang kalikasan sa sining ay upang lalong mapalitaw ang mga katangian ng tao. Ang Diyos man ay nagiging makabuluhan sa daigdig dahil sa tao sapagkat kung walang tao sa daigdig, walang makakaisip ng anuman tungkol sa Diyos. Hindi nito sinasabi na higit na dakila ang tao kaysa Diyos. Isinesentro lamang nito sa daigdig ang tao. Teoryang Romantisismo Higit na pinahahalagahan ang “damdamin” kaysa ideyang siyentipiko o may batayan. Nananalig ang mga romantisista sa Diyos; naniniwala sila sa katwiran, siyensya, eksperimento at obserbasyon (empirisismo); materyal din ang tingin nila sa kalikasan at santinakpan. Ngunit para sa kanila, kulang pa at hindi maipaliliwanag o nasasagot ng mga ito ang mga tanong at mga karanasan tungkol sa puso. Teoryang Realismo Higit na mahalaga ang katotohanan kaysa kagandahan. Hinahangad nito ang katotohanan at ang makatotohanang paglalahad at paglalarawan ng mga bagay, mga tao at lipunan, at alin pa mang maaaring mapatunayan sa pamamagitan ng ating mga sentido. Ang paraan ng paglalarawan ang susi, at hindi ang uri ng paksa. Naniniwala ang realismo na ang pagbabago ay walang hinto. 64
Teoryang Naturalismo Pinalawak ng naturalismo ang saklaw ng realismo. Tinangka kasi ng naturalismo ang mas “matapat, di-piniling representasyon ng realidad, isang tiyak na hiwa ng buhay na ipinakita nang walang panghuhusga”. Dahil sa walang muwang na “scientific determinism,” binigyang-diin ng naturalismo ang namana (o aksidente) at pangpisikal na likas ng tao kaysa mga katangian niyang pangmoral o rasyonal. Naipakitang ang mga indibidwal ay produkto ng pinanggalingan at kapaligiran. Teoryang Formalismo Ang isang akda ay may sariling buhay at umiiral sa sarili nitong paraan. Nasa porma o kaanyuan ng isang akda ang kasiningan nito. Ang porma ay binubuo ng imahe (gamit ng lengguwahe na kumakatawan sa mga bagay, aksiyon at mga ideyang abstrakto), diksiyon (pagpili ng mga salita at paraan ng pagkakaayos nito), sukat, tugma, at iba pa. Kailangang magkasama ang porma at ang nilalaman upang magkaroon ng buong kahulugan ang isang akda. Teoryang Imahismo Malaya ang makatang pumili ng anumang nais na paksain ng kanyang tula. Gumagamit ng wika o salitang pangkaraniwan. Kailangang angkop at tiyak ang bawat salita, at walang hindi kinakailangang palamuti. Ang imagism, isang tradisyon ng panulaang modernista na sadyang tiwalag sa tradisyon ng pangangaral o pang-aliw bilang akdang pansining ay may bukod-tanging kairalan, at hindi ito kailangang ipasailalim sa anumang layuning hindi makasining. Wika nga, “Art for art’s sake”. Teoryang Siko-Analitika Masalimuot ang teorya ni Freud. Sa pinakamadaling sabi, ang panitikan sa kanya ay ang kabuuan ng kamalayan at di-kamalayan: lumalabas dito ang mga bagay na di masasabi o maisusulat ng makata nang tuwiran sa harap ng ibang tao. Arketipal na Pananaw o mitolohikal na oryentasyon. Ito ay isa pang pagdulog na tila kawangis ng sikolohikal na pananaw. Tulad ng sikolohikal na pananaw, nakapako ang atensiyon nito sa paraan ng paglikha at ang epekto nito sa mambabasa. Subalit waring higit na malawak ang larangang sinusuyod ng arketipong pananaw sapagkat buong kalipunan ng mga sagisag at imaheng palagiang lumilitaw sa mga teksto ng pandaigdigang kultura ang pinagpapakuan nito ng masusing pansin. Teoryang Eksistensiyalismo Tulad ng romantisismo, ito ay mahilig sa eksperimentasyon tungo sa “tunay” na buhay at pananalita o ekspresyon. Sinusuri nito ang lahat ng bagay bilang “lived facts”; wala itong dini-diyos at itinuturing na dapat igalang (sacred) maliban sa kalayaan, pagka-responsable at indibidwalismo ng bawat tao – ng manunulat o ng mambabasa. Walang makapagsasabi ng kung alin ang tama o mali, totoo o malikmata, importante o walang silbi, maliban sa taong nakararanas sa pinag-uusapan.
Teoryang Istrukturalismo Iisa ang simulain ng teoryang ito: ang pagpapatunay na ang wika o lengguwahe, ay hindi lamang hinuhubog ng kamalayang panlipunan kundi humuhubog din sa kamalayang panlipunan. Nakabaon ang panlipunang kamalayan sa paggamit ng wika (social discourse) o paggamit sa mga salita ayon sa mga kinikilalang tuntunin at pagsasapraktikang panlipunan (social conventions). Teoryang Dekonstruksiyon
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Binibiyang-diin sa teoryang ito ang kamalayan ng manunulat at ng mambabasa bilang mga produkto ng social discourse na nakasulat. Ito ay naangkop sa panitikang nakasulat bilang produkto ng isang tiyak na may-akda na tagapagdala o tagapagingat ng isang tradisyong pang-intelektuwal at pampanitikan. Ang kahulugan ng isang tekto ay nasa kamalayang gumagamit sa teksto, at hindi sa teksto mismo.
Teoryang Moralistiko Pinalalagay na ang akda ay may kapangyarihang maglahad o magpahayag hindi lamang ng literal na katotohanan kundi ng mga panghabambuhay at unibersal na mga katotohanan at mga di-mapapawing pagpapahalaga (values). Pinahahalagahan ang panitikan di dahil sa mga partikular na katangian nito bilang likhang-isip na may sinusunod na sariling mga batas at prinsipyo sa kanyang pagiging malikhain, kundi dahil sa mga aral na naidudulot nito sa mga nakikinig o bumabasa. Teoryang Historikal/Sosyolohikal Di teksto bilang teksto ang lubusang pinagtutuunan ng pansin kundi ang kontekstong dito’y nagbigaydaan; hindi ang partikular na kakanyahan lamang ang sinusuri kundi ang mga impluwensiyang dito ay nagbigay-hugis—ang talambuhay ng awtor, ang politikal na sitwasyon sa panahong naisulat ang akda, ang mga tradisyon at kombensiyon na maaaring nakapagbigay sa akda ng mga katangian. Marxistang Pananaw Ang panitikan ay tinitignan bilang instrumento ng pagbabago, o bilang behikulo na magagamit upang mabuksan ang isipan ng tao sa kanilang kalagayang api. Feministang Pananaw Pinagtutuunan ng pananaw Feminismo ang kalagayan o representasyon ng kababaihan sa isang akda. Layunin nito na baguhin ang mga de-kahong imahen o paglalarawan sa kababaihan sa anumang uri ng panitikan. Layunin ng pananaw na ito na masuri ang mga akdang pampanitikan sa paningin o perspektiba ng babae. Dahil sa matagal na panahon, halos mga lalaki ang nagsusuri kung kaya hindi man maka-lalaki ang pananaw, ay nagtatanghal lamang ng mga nagawa ng kalalakihan.
Mga Tayutay o Mga Salitang Patalinghaga Tayutay (Figures of Speech)
Nagpapaganda sa akda, nagpapalalim sa kaisipan at nagpapayaman sa guniguni ng bumabasa. Ang mga tayutay ay madalas na gamitin sa mga akdang pampanitikan.
1.
Patulad o Simile – paghahambing ng dalawang bagay na magkaiba ng uri (ginagamitan ng salitang para, gaya, katulad, kaparis, at iba pa). Halimbawa: Para ng halamang lumaki sa tubig, Daho’y nalalanta munting di madilig.
2.
Pawangis o Metapora – paggamit ng salitang nangangahulugan ng isang bagay sa pagpapahayag ng ibang bagay. Halimbawa: Sapagkat ang haring may hangad sa yaman 66
Ay mariing hampas ng langit sa bayan. 3.
Sinekdoke – gumagamit ng bahagi sa halip ng kabuuan o ng kabuuan sa halip ng bahagi. Halimbawa: At ang balang bibig na binubukalan Ng sabing magaling at katotohanan.
4.
Pangitain o Vision Halimbawa: Sa sinapupunan ng Konde Adolfo’y Aking natatanaw si Laurang sinta ko.
5.
Panawagan o Apostrophe – kagyat na pagtutol sa naunang pagpapahayag at pananawagan sa tao o bagay na wala roon.
Halimbawa: Kamataya’y nahan ang dating bangis mo? 6.
Pabaligho o Paradox – pahayag na wari’y salungat o laban sa likas na pagkukuro ngunit nagpapakilala ng katotohanan.
Halimbawa: Ang matatawag kong palaya sa akin ng ama ko’y itong ako’y pagliluhin agawan ng sinta’t panasa-nasaing lumubog sa dusa’t buhay ko’y makitil. 7.
Padamdam o Exclamation – pagbubulalas ng masidhi o matinding damdamin.
Halimbawa: Nanlilisik ang mata’t ang ipinagsaysay Ay hindi ang ditsong nasa orihinal, Kundi ang winika’y ikaw na umagaw Ng kapurihan ko’y dapat kang mamatay! 8.
Pandiwantao o Personification – binibigyang-katauhan ang isang bagay na walang buhay o kaisipang basal (abstract).
Halimbawa: Parang walang malay hanggang sa magtago’t Humilig si Pebo sa hihigang ginto. 9.
Pahalintulad o Analogy – tambalang paghahambing, pagkakawangki ng mga pagkakaugnay.
Halimbawa: Inusig ng taga ang dalawang leon, si Apolo mandin sa Serpyente Piton. 10.
Enigma – naikukubli ang kahulugan sa ilalim ng malabong pagtukoy. 67
Halimbawa: Tapat ang puso ko’y di nagunamgunam Na ang paglililo’y nasa kagandahan. 11.
Papanuto o Aphorism – maikling paglalahad ng isang tuntuning pangkaasalan.
Halimbawa: Kung ang isalubong sa iyong pagdating ay masayang mukha’t may pakitang-giliw pakaingatan mo’t kaaway na lihim, siyang isaisip na kakabakahin. 12.
Tanong na Mabisa o Rhetorical Question – tanong na naglalayong magbunga ng isang tanging bisa at hindi upang magtamo ng kasagutan.
Halimbawa: Anong gagawin ko sa ganiton bagay ang sinta ko kaya’y bayaang mamatay? 13.
Pagmamalabis o Hyperbole – pahayag na ibayong maindi kaysa katotohanan o lagpas sa maaaring mangyari.
Halimbawa: Bababa si Marte mula sa itaas, Sa kailalima’y aahon ang parkas. 14.
Aliterasyon – paulit-ulit na tunog ng isang katinig na ginagamit sa mga magkakalapit na salita o pantig.
Halimbawa: At sa mga pulong dito’y nakasabog, nangalat, nagpunla. Nagsipanahanan, nangagsipamuhay, nagbato’t nagkuta. 15.
Asonansya – inuulit ang tunog ng isang patinig sa halip ng katinig.
Halimbawa: Ang buhay ng tao at sa taong palad, Nasa ginagawa ang halaga’y bigat. 16. Onomatopeya – pagkakahawig ng tunog ng salita at ng diwa nito. (1) Tuwirang onomatopeya – kapag ginagagad ng ga tunog ng patinig at katinig ang tunog ng inilalarawan ng taludtod. Halimbawa: Ikaw’y iniluwal ng baha sa bundok Hahala-halakhak at susutsut-sutsot. (2) Pahiwatig na onomatopeya – kapag ang mga tunog ng patinig at katinig ay hindi gumagagad kundi nagpapahiwatig lamang ng bagay na inilalarawan. 68
Ayon kay Lope K. Santos, ang ating mga titik ay nag-aangkin ng sari-sariling pahiwatig na kaisipan. Ang A ay nagpapahiwatig ng kalakhan, kalinawan, kalawakan, kalantaran, samantalang ang I ay nagtataglay ng diwa ng kaliitan, labuan, karimlan, kalaliman, kalihiman, at iba pa. a
–
araw, buwan, ilaw, buwan, linaw, tanghal
i
–
gabi, lilim, lihim, kulimlim, liit, unti, itim
i
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Ang suot ay puti’y may apoy sa bibig, Sa buong magdamag ay di matahimik, Ngunit ang hiwagang di sukat malirip, Kung bakit sa gabi lamang namamasid.
Mga Uri ng Matalinghagang mga Pananalita Pahayag Idyomatiko (Idiomatic Expression)
Isang pariralang ang kahulugan ay di mahahanago sa alinmang bahagi ng pananalita. Ang kahulugan ng mga ito ay di bunga ng pagsasama ng kahulugan ng mga salitang bumubuo sa mga ito kundi isang natatanging kahulugang naiiba sa mismong parirala. Malayo ang kahulugang literal o tuwirang kahulugan sa kontekstuwal o tunay na kahulugan. Matatag na ang pagiging gamitin ng mga pahayag idyomatiko dahil ginagamit na sa mahabang panahon at bahagi na ng talaslaitaan ng bayan. Nagpasalin-salin ito sa bibig ng mg tao.
Halimbawa: alagang ahas – taksil, walang utang-na-loob, kalawang sa bakal gagapang na parang ahas – maghihirap ang buhay, maghihikahos, magiging miserable ang buhay parang ahas na kuyog – galit na lahat ang buong angkan sa kagalit ng isa sa kanila bagong ahon – baguhan sa pook, bagong salta alanganin – bakla, tomboy lumilipad sa alapaap – walang katiyakan, alinlangan inalat – minalas, inabot ng alat pinakain ng alikabok – tinalo sa isang karera ng takbuhan nasagap na alimuom – nakuhang tsismis, sabi-sabi, bali-balita, alingasngas
Patayutay na Pananalita ((Figurative Word or Phrase)
Isang salita o parirala na ang kahulugan ay ipinahihiwatig ng salita o ilan sa mga salita sa parirala. Nasisinag ang kontekstuwal na kahulugan sa mga salitang ginagamit.
Halimbawa: magulo pa sa sangkuwaltang abaka – masalimuot, napakagulo, nakalilito, walang-walang kaayusan abo ang utak – walang pang-intindi, bobo, tanga, mahina ang ulo anay – lihim na kaaway anak sa labas – anak sa di tunay na asawa, anak sa ibang babae parang iniihan ng aso – di mapakali, di mapalagay, balisa buhol-babae – mahina o madaling makalas ang pagkakatali, di matatag/matibay 69
agawin ang buhay – iligtas ang buhay sa kamatayan mag-alsa ng boses – sumigaw (sa galit), magtaas ng tinig mabigat ang katawan – masama ang pakiramdam o di maganda ang pakiramdam, tamad Eupemistikong Pananalita (Euphemistic Expression)
Pananalitang ipinapalit sa mga salita o pariralang kapag ipinahayag sa tuwirang kahulugan ay nagdudulot ng pagkalungkot o pagdaramdam, pagkarimarim, pagkalagim o ibang di kanais-nais na damdamin sa pinagsasabihan o nakakarinig. Ginagawa ang ganitong pagpapalit upang maging kaaya-aya sa pandinig ang pahayag at nang maiwasan ang makasugat ng damdamin ng iba. Madalas na ginagamit ang mga eupemistikong pananalita sa mga pahayg kaugnay ng kamatayan, maseselang bahagi ng katawan ng tao at sa malalaswang gawain.
Halimbawa: Eupemistikong Pananalita sumakabilang buhay o binawian ng buhay pagsisiping o pagtatalik
Kahulugan namatay pag-aasawahan
Practice Test I. Direksyon: Piliin ang titik ng sagot sa bawat bilang. 1. May prinsipyo si Daves, kaya nang mabalitaan niyang may tali sa ilong ang kanyang kaibigan dahil sunud-sunuran sa lahat ng ipinag-uutos ng kanyang hepe, pinangaralan niya ito. a. nasa ilalim ng kapangyarihan b. di makahalata c. kulang ang pagkalalake d. walang iisang salita 2. Ang lihim na kanyang iniingatan ay nabunyag dahil siya ay nahuli sa kanyang sariling bibig. a. tsismosa b. sa sariling bibig nagmula ang katotohanan c. pagiging totoo d. di marunong magsinungaling 3. Talagang sakit ng ulo ang pag-aasawa nang wala sa panahon. a. masasakitin ang ulo b. di nag-iisip c. malaking suliranin o alalahanin d. mahirap isipin 4. Ang taong may krus sa dibdib ay pinagpapala ng Diyos. a. maunawain b. mapagmahal c. maka-Diyos d. mapagpatawad 5. Pagdaan ng mga taon, saka mo pa lamang makikita na may pileges ang noo mo. a. nagiging batang muli 70
b. nagiging isip-bata c. maraming problema d. matanda na 6. Paano ko maiintindihan ang kanyang ulat, e boses-ipis siya. a. mahina ang boses b. di makarinig c. di marinig magsalita d. a at c 7. Galit ako sa mga istudyante parang kampana ang bibig sa loob ng klase. a. tulad ng tunog ng kampana ang boses b. mukhang kampana c. malakas ang boses d. malaki ang bukas ng bibig kung magsalita 8. Bukod sa pagtuturo, nais ibuhos ni Miguel ang isip sa pagguhit. a. ituon ang isip b. ubusin ang panahon c. mag-isip nang mag-isip d. maging malikhain 9. Kaya matumal ang paninda mo ay isang bakol ang mukha mo. Ngumiti ka naman. a. nakakunot ang noo b. nakangiwi c. malungkot d. nakasimangot 10. Lumuha ka man ng bato, di na maibabalik ang buhay ng iyong ama. a. matinding panangis b. di makaiyak o makaluha c. di matinag d. wala ng pakiramdam Direksyon: Basahin at unawain ang tula. Sagutin ang mga tanong. Hapunan Nagdiriwang sa hapag
1
ang tatlong payat na tinapa; tinatanuran ng nilagang kamatis na binudburan ng maghapong pagtitiis sa ilalim ng matinding sikat ng araw. Iniingatang may lumusot na butil ng pawis sa awang ng mesang kawayan; biyaya itong hulog ng langit kaya’t dapat pag-ingatan. Hati ang mag-asawa
2 71
sa nakahaing tinapa. Salit-salitan sa sawsawang nilapirot sa asin.
Bumukal ang maliliit na butil ng pawis
3
sa noo ng mag-asawang pagal sa pagbubungkal ng lupa.
Tahimik na tahimik
4
sa harap ng hapunang pambihira. 11. Anong larawang-diwa ang ipinakita ng tula? a. pagsasama ng mag-asawa b. kahirapan ng buhay c. payak na buhay sa bukid d. pagtitipid ng mga magsasaka 12. Iniingatang may lumusot na butil ng pawis sa awang ng mesang kawayan. Ang butil ng pawis ay nangangahulugan ng/na _________________. a. pagtiisan ang anumang pagkaing nasa hapag. b. pagpapahalaga sa pagkaing nasa hapag dahil ito ay kanilang pinaghirapan. c. pagiging kuntento sa kung anong mayroon. d. pasasalamat sa biyayang tinanggap. 13. Anong saknong ang nagpapahayag ng positibong pananaw. a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 14. Alin sa mga saknong ng binasang tula ang nagpapahiwatig ng pagkakaroon ng pag-asa ng mag-asawa? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 Direksyon: Basahin ang sanaysay. Sagutin ang mga tanong. Itanghal nga natin ang nasyonalismong Pilipino. Itambal ang diwang malaya, ang sipag sa paggawa at taimtim na pagmamahal sa mga likas at pinaunlad na pamana ng ating mga ninuno. Pagyamanin at pagmalasakitan silang palagi. At huwag limutin na sila ang susing ginto sa tunay na kalayaan at katubusan ng Pilipinas. Ating tandaan, na sa sandaling ang Pilipinismo’y maging kalangkap ng ating buhay na pang-araw-araw, sa ating mga basar, groseri at pamilihan ay mamumutiktik na ang mga produktong Pilipino at sila ang magiging gamit sa bahay-bahay; hindi na ang mga made in 72
USA, made in Japan at made in Germany. At mangyari pa, mawawala na ang mga sawimpalad na kababayang namumulot sa mga basurahan upang makatawid sa gutom. MATUTUHAN LAMANG NG PILIPINO NA SIYA’Y MAGPAKA-PILIPINO. - Pilipinismo: Susi ng Bayang Tagumpay ni Amado V. Hernandez 15. Ano ang paksa ng binasang sanaysay? a. Pagtangkilik sa mga produktong Pilipino b. Pagmamalasakit sa pamana ng mga ninuno c. Pagtulong sa mga sawimpalad na Pilipino d. Pagiging makabayan 16. Batay sa binasang sanaysay, ano ang masasabing kalagayan ng lipunang Pilipino? a. Pinagmamalasakitan ang mga ninuno na nakipaglaban upang makamit ang kalayaan ng Pilipinas b. Higit na pagtangkilik sa mga produktong banyaga kaysa mga produktong Pilipino c. Pagkakaroon ng mahihirap na Pilipino na namumulot sa mga basurahan d. Maraming Pilipino ang nagnanais na makapangibang-bansa 17. Ipinaliwanag ng sanaysay na kung ang Pilipinismo’y magiging kalangkap ng pang-araw-araw na buhay ng mga Pilipino, ______________________. a. dadami ang mga produkto gawa ng mga Pilipino. b. mababawasan ang mga Pilipinong kumakalam ang sikmura. c. hindi na aangkat ng mga banyagang produkto sa ibang bansa. d. higit na makakamit ang pag-unlad sa buhay ng bawat Pilipino. 18. Ano ang itinuturo ng binasang sanaysay? a. Pagtatanghal ng nasyonalismong Pilipino. b. Itambal ang diwang malaya, ang sipag sa paggawa at taimtim na pagmamahal sa mga likas at pinaunlad na pamana ng ating mga ninuno. c. Pagyamanin at pagmalasakitang palagi silang susing ginto sa tunay na kalayaan at katubusan ng Pilipinas. d. Mawawala na ang mga sawimpalad na kababayang namumulot sa mga basurahan upang makatawid sa gutom. Direksyon: Basahin ang bahagi ng kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong. Kay Ama niya inihabilin ang paglilibing sa kanya. Dito sa Maynila, sinabi na naman niya. Mag-iisa akong malilibing dito, Tiyo Julio, ngunit gusto kong dito malibing. “Magdasal ka,” payo ni Ama, “iyang hinanakit mo’y kalimutan mo na. iyang babaunin mo pa ang mga iyan.”
Masama
“Mahirap makalimutan, Tiyo Julio. Natatandaan ba ninyo noon, noong maliit ako? Noong hindi ko matagpuan ang libing ni Ama’t Ina? Wala akong mauuwian doon, Tiyo Julio. Mag-iisa rin ako.” Tumungo ang maputing ulo ni Ama; pati siya’y ibig na ring maluha sa sinasabi ni Layo. 73
“Walang hindi umuuwi sa kanyang bayan. Mayroon nga riyan, namamatay sa Amerika, pagkatapos manirahan doon nang kay tagal, ngunit ang huling kahilingan ay ang malibing dito sa atin.” “Maganda ang sinabi ninyo, Tiyo Julio.” “Wala ngang hindi umuuwi sa atin, sa kanyang bayan, Layo. Ikaw man ay uuwi rin.” Lahat ay umuuwi sa kanyang bayan, ibig ko ring sabihin kay Layo. Maaaring narito ka, ngunit ang iyong kaluluwa ay naglalakbay na pabalik doon. Maaaring naging mapait ang kabataan mo roon, ngunit huwag mong sabihing ikaw ay di babalik. Ngayo’y hindi siya nakatingin sa akin, ni kay Ama, ni kay Ising. Nakatingin siya sa kisame. Nakaangat ang kanyang baba at tila mga mata ng isang bulag ang kanyang mga mata. Alam kong naglalakbay ang kanyang diwa: marahil, nalalaman ko kung saan naglalakbay iyon. Gusto kong isipin na ngayo’y naglalakbay ang kaluluwa ni Layo patungo sa aming bayan; gusto kong isipin na ngayo’y tila mga tuyong dahon nang malalaglag ang kanyang hinanakit: gusto kong isipin na sa paglalakbay ng kanyang kaluluwa, sa paglalakbay na iyong pabalik, ay nakatatagpo siya ng kapayapaan… Nalagay sa mga pahayagan ang pagkamatay ni Layo. Ang sabi sa pahayagan ay ilalagak daw ang kanyang bangkay sa San Roque. Ang kabaong ni Layo ay isinakay sa isang itim na kotse. Mula sa Maynila, naglakbay iyon sa mga bayan-bayan. Tumitigil iyon sa mga bahay-pamahalaan. Nanaog ang nakaunipormeng tsuper at ipinagbigay-alam ang pagdaraan. Hapon na nang dumating iyon sa San Roque. Sa San Roque, marami ang naghihintay na makikipaglibing kay Layo. Naghihintay rin sa kanya ang lupa ng sariling bayan.
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Sa Lupa ng Sariling Bayan ni Rogelio R. Sikat
19. Ano ang maituturing na kasukdulan ng kuwentong binasa? a. Pagsasabi ni Tiyo Julio na ang lahat umuuwi sa sariling bayan b. Pag-uuwi ng bangkay ni Layo sa San Roque c. Paghahabilin ni Layo na ilibing siya sa Maynila d. Pagkikipaglibing ng mga taga-San Roque kay Layo
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20. Ang suliranin ng kuwento ay binigyang-solusyon sa pamamagitan ng ________________________. a. pagpanaw ni Layo dahil sa kanyang karamdaman. b. pangangaral ni Tiyo Julio c. pag-uuwi ng bangkay ni Layo sa San Roque, ang kanyang sariling bayan d. paglalathala sa pahayagan ng ukol sa pagpanaw ni Layo 21. Ano ang ibig ipakahulugan ng wakas na ito: Naghihintay rin sa kanya ang lupa ng sariling bayan? a. Lahat ay umuuwi sa kanyang bayan. b. Tanggap pa rin siya ng mga taga-San Roque. c. Pagkakaroon ng lubos na kapayapaan. d. Pagkawala ng hinanakit ni Layo sa San Roque. 22. Mahirap makalimutan, Tiyo Julio. Natatandaan ba ninyo noon, noong maliit ako? Noong hindi ko matagpuan ang libing ni Ama’t Ina? Wala akong mauuwian doon, Tiyo Julio. Mag-iisa rin ako. Anong damdamin ang mababakas kay Layo sa mga pahayag niyang ito? a. hinanakit b. kalungkutan c. pangungulila sa mga magulang d. pagtatampo 23. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento? a. Ang mga sugat ay napaghihilom ng panahon. b. Ang pakikiramay ay bahagi ng pakikipagkapwa. c. Lahat ay naghahangad ng isang maayos na libing. d. Walang hindi umuuwi sa sariling bayan. Direksyon: Basahin ang kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong. Opener ako kinabukasan. Mas gusto kong maging opener, kakaunti lang kasi ang kumakain. Karamihan mga nag-oopisina at lagi pang take out. Lagi silang mga nagmamadali. Kapag konti ang kumain, konti ang aking lilinisin. Pero sa kawnter ako napunta. Kahit takot akong humawak ng pera, kailangan kong matutunan ang lahat ng bahagi ng operasyon. Ingat na ingat ako sa pagsusukli dahil kapag nagkulang ang aking benta, kaltas sa sahod ko. Habang napupuno ng pera ang lalagyan ng benta at wala namang bumibili, inisip ko ang una kong sasahurin. Mamaya, pag-out ko, tiyak na may laman na ang ATM ko. “Siguro konti para sa mga delata’t sabong panligo at panlaba, bayad kay Nanay at ‘yung matitira, baon at pamasahe ko,” pagkukwenta ko. Pagkatapos ng anim na oras, ini-remit ko ang benta kay Ma’am Sarri. Naglog-out ako at kumain. Minadali ko ang pagkain. Sabik na ‘kong makuha ang aking sahod. Pinuntahan ko ang bangkong tumatanggap ng ATM ko. Pumasok ako at ipinasok sa machine ang kard at agad kong pinindot ang PIN na galing sa pangalan ni Nanay. Habang hinihintay ko ang lalabas sa screen, may pumasok. Sa tunog ng kanyang sapatos sa sahig, at sa suot niyang long-sleeve at kurbata, halatang nag-oopisina siya. May dalawng machine sa loob. ‘Yung isa ang ginamit niya. Tumunog ang machine na gamit ko.
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“Pambihira! Wala pa!” dinig ko sa mamang de-opisina. Naisip ko, nagiging mabangis pala ang tao kapag nade-delay ang sahod. Siguro, tulad ko, malaki rin ang pangangailangan niya. May utang din siyang dapat bayaran. Gusto kong pagsisipain ang machine dahil wala pa rin ang sahod ko. Lumabas na ako’t sumakay na dyip papuntang Quiapo na dadaan sa eskwelahang pinapasukan ko. Pagkatapos ng klase ko, pumunta uli ako sa bangkong pinuntahan ko kanina. Ipinasok ko ang ATM kard ko at pinindot ang PIN. Parang nag-iisip ang machine. At ilang sandali pa, namilog ang aking mata sa aking nakita. “Sa wakas!” Nanginginig kong kinuha ang dadaaning sahod ko. Kay sarap tanggapin ang perang pinagpaguran. Di ko na binilang dahil alam kong di ito maaaring magkulang. Matatalino ang mga machine na ‘to. Maggo-groseri ako. Pero di pa ‘ko nakakalayo sa bangko, ay may biglang umakbay sa akin. “Akina! Bilisan mo!” ang mahina ngunit madiin niyang iniutos sa akin. Mahigpit ang pagkakaakbay niya sa ‘kin. Iginawi niya ako sa madalim na lugar palihis ng Taft Avenue. At saka niya ako tinutukan ng patalim. Di na ‘ko nakapalag. ‘Nung ibinibigay ko ang unang sahod ko, parang ibinibigay kong buung-buo ang sarili ko. Habang papalayo ang holdaper lubusan ko siyang nakilala. Siya ‘yung pumasok kanina sa loob, ‘yung mukhang de-opisina. Kasabay kong lumuha ng dilim ang buwan. Nagdidilim ang isip ko. Gusto kong biglang mawala na lang. Sa pag-uwi ko, naalala ko si Nanay. Di ko pa siya mababayaran ngayon. kailangan ko uling magkaroon ng dagdag na lakas ng loob upang muling mangutang.
At
- McDonaldisasyon 24. Alin sa sumusunod na pangyayari ang kasukdulan ng kuwentong binasa? a. Nang ibinibigay niya sa holdaper ang kanyang unang sahod. b. Nang makuha na niya ang pinakaaasam na sahod na ATM. c. Nang umuwi na siya at maalala ang kanyang Nanay. d. Nang may umakbay sa kanyang holdaper at igawi siya sa madilim na lugar. 25. Sa pag-uwi ko, naalala ko si Nanay. Di ko pa siya mababayaran ngayon. At kailangan ko uling magkaroon ng dagdag na lakas ng loob upang muling mangutang. Ano ang tawag sa bahaging ito ng kuwento kung saan binibigyang solusyon ang suliranin? a. wakas b. kasukdulan c. kakalasan d. suluranin 26. Ano ang ipinahihiwatig ng wakas ng kuwento? a. May mga taong maaaring mautangan sa oras ng kagipitan. b. Patuloy na pagkakaroon ng pag-asa sa buhay 76
c. Anuman ang suliraning maranasan, tuloy pa rin ang buhay. d. Walang magulang ang makatitiis sa kanyang anak. 27. Kasabay kong lumuha ng dilim ang buwan. Nagdidilim ang isip ko. Gusto kong biglang mawala na lang. Anong damdamin ang mababakas sa pangunahing tauhan sa bahaging ito ng kuwento? a. matinding kabiguan b. panghihinayang c. paghahanap ng katarungan d. kawalan ng pag-asa 28. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento? a. May mga pagsubok sa buhay na kailangang harapin. b. Di nakakamit ng mahihirap ang katarungan. c. May mga taong kumakapit sa patalim kapag nagigipit. d. Talamak ang karahasan sa isang lipunang dumaranas ng kahirapan. Nang makitang walang-kibo ang maysakit, nabuhos ang loob ni Padre Florentino sa isang suliranin at naibulong: “Nasaan ang kabataang dapat mag-alay ng kaniyang kasariwaan, ng kaniyang mga panaginip at sigasig ukol sa kabutihan ng kaniyang Inang Bayan? Nasaan siya na dapat kusang-loob na magbuhos ng kaniyang dugo upang mahugasan ang nakaparaming kahihiyan, ang napakaraming pagkakasala, ang napakaraming kasuklamsuklam? Dalisay at walang batik dapat ang alay upang tanggapin ang paghahandog!...Nasaan kayo, mga kabataan, na magsasakatauhan sa sigla ng buhay na tumakas sa aming mga ugat, sa kadalisayan ng pag-iisip na nabulok sa aming mga utak, sa apoy ng sigasig na napugto sa aming mga puso? Hinihintay namin kayo, O mga kabataan! Halikayo, sapagkat hinihintay namin kayo!” At dahil naramdaman niyang namamasa ang kaniyang mga mata, binitawan niya ang kamay ng maysakit, tumindig, at lumapit sa bintana upang masdan ang malawak na karagatan. -
El Filibusterismo Jose Rizal Salin ni Virgilio S. Almario
29. Sino ang sinisimbolo ni Padre Florentino sa kasalukuyang panahon? a. mga gurong nagtuturo ng kasaysayan b. matandang nawawalan ng pag-asa c. pangulo ng Pilipinas d. mga Pilipinong hangad ay pagbabago 30. Ang maysakit sa binasang bahagi ng El Filibusterismo ay sumisimbolo sa ____________________. a. mga Pilipinong nawalan ng pag-asa. b. sakit ng lipunang Pilipino. c. bigong paghihimagsik ng mga bayani d. mga Pilipinong nagbuwis ng buhay 31. Alin sa sumusunod na teorya ang mababakas sa binasang bahagi ng El Filibusterismo? a. Humanismo b. Eksistensyalismo 77
c. Realismo d. Romantesismo Direksyon: Tukuyin ang simbolo ng lupa sa sumusunod na saknong ng tula. Di na ako yaoang basal na bahagi ng daigdig, Kundi lupang nalinang na ng kalabaw at ng bisig; Ang datihang pagka-gubat ay hinawan at nalinis. - Lope K. Santos, Ako’y si Bukid 32. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________. a. kabataan b. kasaganaan c. kabuhayan d. bayan Aling pag-ibig pa ang hihigit kaya Sa pagkadalisay at pagdakila Gaya ng pag-ibig sa tinubuang lupa? Aling pag-ibig pa? Wala na nga, wala. - Andres Bonifacio, Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa 33. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________. a. kabataan b. kasaganaan c. kabuhayan d. bayan Nakayapak, mahilig tayong tumahal sa lupa. Lupang mahalumigmig, malambot, marangay. - Lamberto E. Antonio, Lupa 34. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________. a. kabataan b. kasaganaan c. kabuhayan d. bayan 35. Noong sumiklab ang Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig, sumapi si Ka Amado sa mga gerilya bilang Intelligence Officer. Pagkatapos ng giyera, nagsimula ang kanyang pagkilos bilang lider-manggagawa. Anong uri ng panandang diskurso ang mga nakahilig na salita? a. komparison at kontras b. enumerasyon c. order o pagkakasunud-sunod 78
d. sanhi at bunga 36. Di na naituturo nang maayos ang mga asignaturang tulad ng Araling Panlipunan ay babawasan pa ang oras ng pagtuturo nito. Kung kaya di nakapagtataka na ang mga istudyante ay nagiging pasibo sa mga usapin sa eskwela at sa lipunan. Anong uri ng panandang diskurso ang mga nakahilig na salita? a. b. c. d.
komparison at kontras enumerasyon order o pagkakasunud-sunod sanhi at bunga
Direksyon: Basahin ang sumusunod na talata. Tukuyin kung anong uri ng teksto ang mga ito. Nagkaroon ako ng pasyenteng bata na ang amoy ng sipon ang inirereklamo ng ina. Ayon sa ina, mabaho raw ang sipon ng bata (hindi mabaho ang karaniwang sipon). Nang sinilip ko ang loob ng butas ng ilong, nakita ko ang waring piraso ng tela na nakasuksok doon. Malalim na ang pagkakabaon nito sa loob ng ilong. Nang makuha ko ito, nagulat ako na foam pala ito ng sifa na unti-unting ipinasok ng bata sa loob ng ilong hanggang sa mapipi ito doon. - Luis P. Gatmaitan, MD 37. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________. a. descriptiv b. informativ c. narativ d. informativ Ang kompyuter ay produkto ng makabagong teknolohiya. Ito ay isang elektronikong kasangkapan na ginagamitan ng kuryente. Binubuo ito ng tatlong mahahalagang bahagi: monitor, keyboard, at CPU (central processing unit). Tumutulong ito sa tao upang mapadali ang pagmamanipula ng mga datos. - Ligaya Tiamson Rubin 38. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________. a. descriptiv b. informativ c. narativ d. informativ Taong 2001, bigla na lamang naglaho si Danny at walang makapagsabi kung saan siya naroon. Hinanap siya ng mga kamag-anak at kakilala. Buong Mindanao ay hinagilap siya subalit walang balitang nakalap tungkol sa kanya. Hanggang isang araw, may isang taong sumulpot at ibinalitang nakakulong si Danny sa Malaysia dahil sa salang pagpupuslit ng tao patungong Sabah. 39. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ___________. a. descriptiv b. informativ 79
c. narativ d. informativ 40. Isang tuntunin o kautusang kinikilala at pinagtibay ng karanasan at nauugnay lalung-lalo na sa mga bagay at kapakanang maaaring mangyari o may kahalagahan sa buhay. Nagsilbing batas at tuntunin ng kagandahang-asal ng mga tao. a. salawikain b. kawikaan c. kasabihan d. lahat ito 41. Alin sa sumusunod ang mali? a. buk-san b. kop-ya c. to-kwa d. kap-re 42. Alin sa sumusunod ang tama? a. sob-re b. ek-spe-ri-men-to c. trans-krips-yon d. ek-sklu-si-bo 43. Ang yosi, boylet, jologs ay mga halimbawa ng anong kategorya ng wika? a. literari b. kolokyal c. lalawiganin d. balbal 44. Ito ay itinuturing na mahalagang ambag sa palatunugang Filipino. Ang tunog na ito ay maaaring nasa unahan, gitna at hulihang posisyon. a. Ñ b. NG c. C d. F 45. Alin sa sumusunod ang mali? a. Ang alpabetong Filipino ay binubuo ng 28 letra. b. Sa 28 letra ng alpabeto, 20 letra ang nasa dating ABAKADA. c. 8 letra ang dagdag sa alpabetong Filipino. d. Ang lahat ng letra sa alpabetong Filipino ay binibigkas nang pa-Ingles. 46. Ito ay mga salitang may pekulyaridad at sa isang lalawigan lamang naririnig. a. kolokyal b. literari c. balbal d. lalawiganin 47. Filipino ang ating pambansang lingua franca a. ginagamit mong wika sa klase b. ginagamit mong wika sa pakikipag-usap sa mga piling tao c. wikang komon na ginagamit ng dalawang taong nag-uusap na magkaiba ang katutubong wika d. wika sa pang-araw-araw na buhay 48. Kinikilala ng Estado bilang pundasyon ng isang matatag na bansa. a. Wikang Pambansa b. Pamilya 80
c. Edukasyon d. Mag-asawa 49. Romantikong kuwento ng pag-ibig at digmaan ng mga Ifugao na inaawit ng kababaihan. a. Aliguyon b. Hudhud c. Ulpi d. Mumbaki 50. Alinsunod sa tadhana ng batas at sang-ayon sa nararapat sa maaaring ipasya ng Kongreso, dapat magsagawa ng mga hakbangin ang ___________ upang ibunsod at puspusang itaguyod ang paggamit ng Filipino. a. akademya b. lipunan c. pamahalaan d. mamamayan 51. Ito ay isang uri ng tekstong naglalarawan ng isang biswal na konsepto tungkol sa tao, bagay, pook, o pangyayari. Maaaring nagbibigay rin ito ng mas malalim na paglalarawan sa kabuuan ng bagay o ng isang pangyayari. a. informativ b. deskriptiv c. narativ d. argumentativ 52. Ang isang teksto ay ____________ kung ito ay naglalahad lamang ng isang mahalagang pagkukuro, paniniwala o pananaw. Di ito humihikayat sa mambabasa upang tanggapin ang mga patotoo ukol sa isang pananaw. a. informativ b. deskriptiv c. narativ d. argumentativ 53. _____________ ang teksto kung nagtataglay ito ng mahahalaga at tiyak na impormasyon tungkol sa mga tao, bagay, lugar at pangyayari. a. informativ b. deskriptiv c. narativ d. argumentativ 54. Hindi, makakapunta si Lee sa ating pulong mamaya. a. di makakapunta si Lee sa pulong b. makakapunta si Lee sa pulong c. di siguradong darating si Lee d. nakapunta na si Lee sa pulong 55. Pagsunud-sunurin ang sumusunod ayon sa tuntunin sa paghihiram. 1. Bigkasin sa orihinal na anyo ang hiniram na salita mula sa Kastila, Ingles at iba pang wikang banyaga, at saka baybayin sa Filipino. 2. Gamitin ang kasalukuyang leksikon ng Filipino bilang panumbas sa mga salitang banyaga. 3. Kumuha ng mga salita mula sa iba’t ibang katutubong wika sa bansa. a. 1,2,3 b. 2,3,1 81
c. 3,1,2 d. 3,2,1 II. Direksyon: Piliin ang titik ng sagot sa bawat bilang. 1. Madali kasi siyang napakagat sa pain. a. naloko b. napakain c. napahanga d. napaniwala 2. Madali nilang nakamit ang tagumpay, magkataling-puso kasi sila. a. magkaibigan b. magkasundo c. mag-asawa d. magkakilala 3. Di niya matanggap ang kasawiang-palad na inabot ng kanyang pamilya. a. aksidente b. kamalasan c. naputulan ng kamay d. nawalan ng suwerte 4. Magkasundung-magkasundo sila sa lahat ng bagay, pano’y kumakain sila sa iisang pinggan. a. magkaibigan b. ayaw maghugas ng pinggan c. magkasundo d. magkasama sa iisang bahay 5. Umuwi siya isang gabi na parang lantang bulaklak. a. walang lakas b. hinang-hina c. nawalan ng puri d. nanlalata 6. Di dapat silang magsama dahil sila ay parang langis at tubig. a. may sama ng loob b. di magkasundo c. mainit ang dugo sa isa’t isa d. magkaaway 7. Ayaw kong maniwala na kaya nakakuha siya ng mataas na marka sa pagsusulit ay dahil dinuktor ito ng iba. a. minalian b. winasto kahit mali c. inayos sa pamamagitan ng pandaraya d. ipinawasto sa iba 8. Talagang tabla ang mukha mo. Di mo man lang inisip na ako ang nagpasok sa iyo sa trabaho. Bakit mo ako siniraan sa ating Boss? a. walang munti mang kahihiyan b. mukhang tabla ang mukha c. mahiyain d. walang utang na loob
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9. Kaya nagmamagandang-loob si Paulo ay dahil naghuhugas siya ng kamay. Huwag mo siyang paniwalaan. a. takot magkaroon ng kasalanan sa ibang tao b. nagbabayad ng kasalanan sa isang tao c. humihingi ng patawad nang di-tahasan d. umiiwas magkaroon ng pananagutan sa isang naganap na pangyayari 10. Ngayon lang ako nakakita ng labanang ngipin sa ngipin. a. walang ayawan b. ubusan ng lahi c. gantihan nang ubos-kaya d. lakas sa lakas Direksyon: Basahin at unawain ang tula. Sagutin ang mga tanong. SA TABI NG DAGAT ni Ildefonso Santos
Marahang-marahang
1
manaog ka, Irog at kita’y lalakad, maglulunoy kitang payapang-payapa sa tabi ng dagat; di na kailangang sapinan pa ang paang binalat-sibuyas, ang dating garing sa sakong na wari’y kinuyom na rosas!
Manunulay kita,
2
habang maaga pa, sa isang pilapil na nalalatagan ng damong may luha ng mga bituin… patiyad na tayo’y mangaghahabulang simbilis ng hangin, ngunit walang ingay, hanggang sumapit sa tiping buhangin… 83
Pagdating sa tubig,
3
mapapaurong kang parang nangingimi, gaganyakin kita sa nangaroong mga lamang-lati; doon ay may tahong, talaba’t halaang kabigha-bighani, hindi kaya natin mapuno ang buslo bago tumanghali?
Pagdarapit-hapon
4
kita’y magbabalik sa pinanggalingan, sugatan ang paa at sunog ang balat sa sikat ng araw! Talagang ganoon… Sa dagat man, Irog, ng kaligayahan, lahat, pati puso, ay naaagnas ding marahang-marahan… 1932 11. Anong larawang-diwa ang ipinakita ng tula? a. pangingisda b. pagsusuyuan c. pag-iibigan d. paghihirap 12. Di na kailangang sapinan pa ang paang binalat-sibuyas. Ano ang kahulugan ng paang binalatsibuyas? a. maselan b. may-kaya c. babae d. delikado 13. Anong saknong ng tula ang nagbibigay ng positibong pananaw sa nagbabasa? a. 1 b. 2 84
c. 3 d. 4 14. Alin sa sumusunod na taludtod ng tula ang nagpapakita ng kagandahan? a. sakong na wari’y kinuyom na rosas b. sa isang pilapil na nalalatagan ng damong may luha ng mga bituin c. sugatan ang paa at sunog ang balat sa sikat ng araw d. sa dagat man, Irog, ng kaligayahan, lahat, pati puso, ay naaagnas ding marahang-marahan Direksyon: Basahin ang sanaysay. Sagutin ang mga tanong. Ikalat natin ang aral at kaisipan ni Balagtas. Itanghal natin siya sa kanyang dapat kalagyan. Siya ang idolo ni Rizal, Mabini, Bonifacio at ng iba pang mga bayani, ang naging bukal ng kanyang panulat at pakikibaka. Kaya dapat din siyang kilalanin at itanghal, bungkalin at basahin ang iba pa niyang mga akda. Ipabasa natin sa ating mga kaibigan ng magagandang saknong sa Florante at Laura. Sumulat tayo ng mga artikulo tungkol kay Balagtas at ipalathala ito sa mga magasin. Magkaroon ng pagkakataon ang mga hindi Tagalog o ang ibang lahi na makilala siya, tulad ng mga dakilang makata sa daigdig. Kailangan nating maipakilala si Balagtas sa buong bansa at sa buong daigdig. Gumawa ng mga sticker, tarpaulin, at iba pa, ng magagandang linya buhat sa kanyang awit upang ipaskil o idikit sa mga paaralan, pampasaherong dyip, bus, FX, pedicab, sa mga waiting shed, mall, tambayan, tindahan, palengke, at iba pa o maging palamuti ng mga mug, t-shirt, sombrero, at iba pang ating malimit na isinusuot. Ipabasa sa mga programa sa telebisyon at radyo ang ilan sa mga linya o bahagi ng kanyang mga akda. At kung maaari ay maging isang teleserye o fantaserye ang Florante at Laura, tiyak na hahakot ito ng rating. Pero higit pa sa mga ito, kailangan nating isabuhay ang mga sinabi ni Balagtas. Ang mga pag-alaala sa kanya tuwing Abril 2 at ang pagsasagawa ng Balagtasan tuwing Buwan ng Wika ay hindi dapat maging pabalat bunga lamang. Kailangan nating siyang basahin. Kailangang maisapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita sa kanya lalo na sa ngayong panahon ng makabagong teknolohiya. -
Ang Awit na Florante at Laura sa Aking Ipod at Si Francisco Balagtas sa Aking Desktop
15. Ano ang paksa ng binasang sanaysay? a. Pagkakalat ng mga gintong kaisipan ni Balagtas b. Pagkilala kay Francisco Balagtas Baltazar c. Pagkalimot sa mga aral ni Balagtas d. Pagpapakilala sa masang Pilipino si Balagtas 16. Alin sa sumusunod na kaisipan sa sanaysay ang maiuugnay sa lipunan? a. Isapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita kay Balagtas lalo na ngayong panahon ng makabagong teknolohiya. b. Isabuhay ang mga sinabi ni Balagtas para sa mga kabataan. c. Ang mga pag-alaala kay Balagtas tuwing Abril 2 ay hindi dapat maging pabalat bunga lamang. d. Si Balagtas ang idolo ni Rizal, Mabini, Bonifacio at ng iba pang mga bayani. 17. Alin sa sumusunod na pahayag ang nagpapaliwanag kung bakit dapat pahalagahan si Balagtas? a. Ikalat natin ang aral at kaisipan ni Balagtas dahil siya ang idolo ni Rizal, Mabini, Bonifacio at ng iba pang mga bayani, ang naging bukal ng kanilang panulat at pakikibaka. b. Ang pag-alaala sa kanya tuwing Abril 2 at ang pagsasagawa ng Balagtasan tuwing Buwan ng Wika ay hindi dapat maging pabalat bunga lamang. 85
c. Kailangan nating siyang basahin. d. Kailangang maisapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita sa kanya lalo na sa ngayong panahon ng makabagong teknolohiya. 18. Alin sa sumusunod na pahayag ang nagtuturo? a. Kailangang maipakilala si Balagtas sa buong bansa at sa buong daigdig. b. Ipabasa sa mga programa sa telebisyon at radyo ang ilan sa mga linya o bahagi ng kanyang mga akda. c. Maging isang teleserye o fantaserye ang Florante at Laura. d. Kailangang maisapanahon ang paraan ng paggunita sa kanya lalo na sa ngayong panahon ng makabagong teknolohiya. Direksyon: Basahin ang kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong. ‘Nung gabi, sa gilid ng isang tindahang sarado kami nahiga ni Tatay. Di ako makatulog. Kahit anong gawin ko, di pa rin ako makatulog. Iniisip ko ang aming bahay, ang aming mga gamit. Ang dalawa naging pinggan at baso, ang aming kutsara’t platito, ang aming kaldero’t takure, ang kahon ng aming damit, ang boteng makulay at pati ang mga piktyur. Paggising namin, walang mainit na kape, walang mainit na pandesal. Sa buong maghapon, nagkargador si Tatay. Pagkatapos na maibaba ang lahat ng gulay, mga karne naman, mga damit, mga tela, mga bihon at harina, mga mantel, batya at palanggana. Kaya paghapon na, hapung-hapo si Tatay. Ako, naiiwan muna sa harap ng simbahan. Tapos ganon uli kinabukasan. Magkakargador uli si Tatay at maiiwan uli ako sa harap ng simbahan. “’Wag kang lalayo, pag-uwi ko, masarap na tukneneng ang pasalubong ko sa ‘yo,” ang bilin lagi sa akin ni Tatay. Pero iniisip ko pa rin ang aming may gulong na bahay. Mabawi pa kaya namin ni Tatay ang aming may gulong na bahay? At isang hapon, laging gulat ko nang iparada ni Tatay sa aking harapan ang aming may gulong na bahay. Isang drayber na uli ang aking Tatay. Nabawi na rin namin ang aming bahay. Isa-isa kong tinignan ang aming mga gamit. “Sa wakas!” ang nasigaw ko. Pinasakay ako ni Tatay sa aming bahay at saka niya ito minaneho patungo sa aming pinagliliguan. Inalis namin ang aming mga gamit at saka inisis ni Tatay ang loob at labas, ako naman sa manibela. Sinabon at saka binihusan ng tubig. Tapos naging matingkad na asul ang aming bahay. “Ang bangong higaan!” ang nasabi ko. Mula noon, lagi kong binabantayan ang aming bahay. Ako na rin ang nagpapaalala kay Tatay kung bawal itong iparada sa gilid ng kalsada.
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Tuwing gabi, di pa rin nauubos ang mga kwento ni Tatay tungkol sa mga may gulong na bahay. At habang nakahiga kami sa mabangong higaan at natatanaw ang malawak na langit, ay sinabi ni Tatay, “Ngayon, aking Bunso, hinding-hindi na mahihiwalay sa atin ang ating munting bahay, ang ating mabango at may gulong na bahay.” Habang bumababa ang mga asul na asul na ulap. -
May Gulong na Bahay
19. Batay sa iyong binasa, ano sa palagay mo ang kasukdulan ng kuwento? a. Nang matulog ang mag-ama sa gilid ng isang tindahang sarado b. Nang magkargador ang ama upang makaipon ng pambawi ng kanilang bahay c. Nang mawala ang bahay na kariton ng mag-ama d. Nang iparada ng ama ang kanilang may gulong na bahay sa karapan ng bata 20. Paano binigyang solusyon ang suliranin ng kuwento? a. Paghihintay ng anak sa kanyang ama b. Pagkakargador ng ama upang kumita c. Pagpupunyagi ng ama na mabawi ang kanilang bahay d. Pangangako ng ama sa kanyang anak na mababawi nila ang kanilang bahay 21. Ano ang ibig ipakahulugan ng: Habang bumababa ang mga asul na asul na ulap bilang wakas ng kuwento? a. Lahat ng problema ay nabibigyang-solusyon. b. Hindi dapat mawalan ng pag-asa. c. Maging kuntento sa kung ano ang mayroon. d. Ang kaligayahan ay hindi matatamo sa mga materyal na bagay. 22. Di ako makatulog. Kahit anong gawin ko, di pa rin ako makatulog. Iniisip ko ang aming bahay, ang aming mga gamit. Ang dalawa naging pinggan at baso, ang aming kutsara’t platito, ang aming kaldero’t takure, ang kahon ng aming damit, ang boteng makulay at pati ang mga piktyur. Anong damdamin ang mababakas sa batang nagkukuwento sa mga pahayag niyang ito? a. panlulumo b. pagkabalisa c. panghihinayang d. pagkalungko 23. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento? a. Mahalaga ang bahay sa bawat bata. b. Tungkulin ng magulang na ipagkaloob sa mga anak ang maayos na buhay. c. May mga taong kuntento sa kung anong mayroon sila. d. Di dapat husgahan ang mahihirap. Direksyon: Basahin ang kuwento. Sagutin ang mga tanong. “Okey lang,” sabi niya sa sarili. “Sino ba si Eric? Nobyo lang na hanggang ngayo’y nagdedepende pa rin sa magulang. Okey lang.” Naghihimagsik ang kanyang damdamin. Parang sasabog ang kanyang dibdib. A, kung mapaghihingahan lamang niya ng sama ng loob ang mga libro. Kung malulutas lamang 87
ng psychology books ang kanyang suliranin. Mangyari, kahit anong pag-iwas ang kanyang gawin, si Eric pa rin ang laman ng kanyang isipan. Kahit ngayong nasa library siya. Wala sa sariling tinitigan ang hilera ng mga libro sa kabinet. Kanina’y memoryado niya ang call number ng librong hinahanap. Mangyari’y makalawang ulit na siyang nagpabalik-balik sa card catalogue. Isinulat sa kapirasong papel ang call number, ang pamagat ng libro at ang may-akda. Minemorya. Pero nang malingunan kanina si Eric, kinabahan. Namutla. Di makatinag. Matigas ang leeg na itinuon ang paningin sa hilera ng mga libro. Nasa likuran niya si Eric, at sa minsang paggalaw niya, presto! A, bakit ba ganoon? Kung sino ang iniiwasan mo ay siya mong nakikita? Brag! Nahulog ang hawak niyang libro. Di naman niya makuhang pulutin. Baka lumingon si Eric. “Gie!” tawag mula sa kanyang likuran. Kilala niya ang tinig. Bumilis ang tibok ng kanyang puso. Bago nakaiwas, nasa harapan na niya si Eric. Iniabot ang nahulog na aklat. “Namatanda ka ba? Naengkanto? Why don’t you speak up?” Hinahabol ni Eric ang paghinga. “Ang labo mo naman, Gie. Library ‘to. Puwede mo naman akong kausapin, di ba?” Napalakas ang tinig ni Eric. K-R-I-N-G! Bell iyon ng librarian. Napalingon sila sa mesa ng istriktong puno ng library. Itinuro ng librarian ang malaking sign board: SILENCE. Napahiya wari, nagkatinginan sila. Si Gie ang unang umiwas. Pilit iniiwas ang mukha sa binata. Dati-rati, sa ganoong pagkakataon, lalo nilang iniinis ang masungit na librarian. Naroong magsenyasan sila na animo mga piping nag-uusap. O di naman kaya’y tutop ng kaliwang palad ang kanilang bibig hanggang sa sila’y umalis. At sa labas, sabay silang magtatawanan. Pero ngayon, parang pinitpit na luya si Gie. Walang kibo, isang bakol pa ang mukha. A, kabisado na niya ng dalaga. Ang pagmamaktol nito’y nangangahulugan galit sa kanya si Gie. -
OKEY SA ‘YO SI ERIC, ‘TAY? ni Pat V. Villafuerte
24. Alin sa sumusunod na pangyayari ang kasukdulan ng kuwentong binasa? a. Paghihimagsik ng damdamin ni Gie. b. Nang sitahin sila ng istriktong librarian. c. Nang mahulog ang hawak na libro ni Gie. d. Nang marinig niya ang isang pamilyar na tinig. 25. Bakit sinita ng librarian sina Gie at Eric? a. Bawal ang mag-usap sa loob ng library. b. Nakakaistorbo sila sa ibang estudyante. c. Bawal ang maingay sa loob ng library. d. Di nila sinusunod ang nakapaskil na sign board. 88
26. Ano ang ipinahihiwatig ng huling bahagi ng kuwento? a. Galit si Gie sa mahigpit na librarian. b. May tampo si Gie kay Eric. c. Napahiya nang labis si Gie. d. Naguguluhan si Gie. 27. Naghihimagsik ang kanyang damdamin. Parang sasabog ang kanyang dibdib. Anong damdamin ang mababakas kay Gie sa bahaging ito ng kuwento? a. paghihimagsik b. panghihinayang c. matinding pag-ibig d. sama ng loob 28. Anong katotohanan ng buhay ang mababakas sa binasang kuwento? a. Di dapat seryosohin ang unang pag-ibig. b. Piliin ang wastong lugar sa pag-uusap. c. Walang pinipili ang pag-ibig. d. Di maitatago ang tunay at wagas na damdamin. At si Donya Victorina, ang tanging babaeng nakaupo sa piling ng mga Europeo, ang makapagsasabi kung tamad ang Tabo, matigas ang ulo, at sumpungin. Nerbiyosang tulad ng dati, nilalait ni Donya Victorina ang mga kasko, bangka, balsang niyog, ang mga namamangkang Indio, at pati ang mga naglalaba at mga naliligo na ikinayayamot niya ang katuwaan at tawanan. Oo nga, maaaring bumuti ang takbo ng Tabo kung walang mga Indio sa ilog, walang mga Indio sa bayang ito! Oo nga, kung wala na kahit isang Indio sa mundong ito. Nawala sa isip niya na pawang mga Indio ang nagtitimon, Indio ang mga marino, Indio ang mga makinista, Indio ang siyamnapu’t siyam na bahagi ng mga pasahero, at isa rin siyang Indio kung kakayurin ang kulapol niya sa mukha at huhubarin ang mayabang niyang damit. -
El Filibusterismo Jose Rizal Salin ni Virgilio S. Almario
29. Sino ang sinisimbolo ni Donya Victorina sa kasalukuyang panahon? a. Pilipinong nagsisilbi sa ibang bansa b. Pilipinong banyaga sa sariling bayan c. Pilipinong walang pagmamahal sa sariling bayan d. Pilipinong may colonial mentality 30. Oo nga, maaaring bumuti ang takbo ng Tabo kung walang mga Indio sa ilog, walang mga Indio sa bayang ito! Ang Tabo ay maaaring sumimbolo sa __________________. a. mga Pilipino b. bansang Pilipinas c. mahabang kasaysayan ng pananakop d. ekonomiya 31. Alin sa sumusunod na teorya ang mababakas sa binasang bahagi ng El Filibusterismo? a. Humanismo b. Eksistensyalismo c. Realismo d. Romantesismo 89
Direksyon: Tukuyin ang simbolo ng lupa sa sumusunod na saknong ng tula. Hindi ko na ibig na maging halaman na namumulaklak ng may bango’t kulay. At sa halip nito’y ibig ko na lamang Maging lupa ako’t magsilbing taniman. - David T. Mamaril, Lupa at Halaman 32. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________. a. kamatayan b. buhay c. pagsamba sa Diyos d. kabataan Nakalaan akong malamay: lupa ang simula ng lahat ng bagay, diyan din sisibol ang binhi ng baging pag-asa at buhay. - Amado V. Hernandez, Lupa 33. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________. a. kamatayan b. buhay c. pagsamba sa Diyos d. kabataan Sa maghapon, tatlong ulit yumukod Ang kaniyang palaspas pahalik sa lupa - Rio Alma, Sa Panahon ng Babaylan 34. Ang lupa sa tula ay sumisimbolo sa _______________. a. kamatayan b. buhay c. pagsamba sa Diyos d. kabataan Direksyon: Punan ng panandang diskurso ang mga patlang sa talata. 90
Isang kasunduan ang nilagdaan namagbibibgay ng dagdag ng karapatan at benepisyo sa mga Overseas Filipino Worker (OFW) sa Timog Korea. Ang kasunduan ay nilagdaan ng mga kinatawan ng Pilipinas at Timog Korea. Sa ilalim ng kasunduan, ang mga OFW sa Timog Korea ay magkakaroon ng karagdagang benepisyo _____________ ang industrial accidents insurance, medical insurance, at employment insurance. 35. Anong panandang diskurso ang dapat ilagay sa patlang? a. ang mga halimbawa b. kabilang dito c. ang apekto d. tulad ng Magkakaroon ang Kalakhang Maynila ng krisis sa basura sa susunod na dalawang taon. Ito ang naging babala ng Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA). At upang maiwasan ito, ______________ nang maghanap ang MMDA ng iba pang tapunan ng basura sakaling mapuno na ang mga kasalukuyang tapunan ng basura. ______________ ay ang paghihikayat sa mga mamamayan na iwasan ang pagtatapos ng basura sa mga ilog at pampublikong lugar. 36. Anong mga panandang diskurso ang dapat ilagay sa mga patlang? a. una, Ikalawa b. noon, Ang sumunod c. sinimulan, Pagkatapos d. bago, Nang lumaon Direksyon: Basahin ang sumusunod na talata. Tukuyin kung anong uri ng teksto ang mga ito. Nagbago ang mukha ng Tondo. Tapos na raw ang masasayang araw ng mga “halang ang kaluluwa” dahil ang mga dating siga, ngayon ay nagtataguyod na ng mga proyekto para sa mga kabataan. Ito raw ay para makaiwas sa mga rambol at droga. Pero sa paglilinis ng Tondo sa kanyang imahe, may ilang lugar naman sa Metro Manila ang tila nanganganak ng bagong pugad ng mga siga. 37. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________. a. informativ b. descriptiv c. narativ d. ekspositori Layunin ng 13 bansa sa Asta sa inilunsad na Asian Environmental Compliance Network (AECEN), kasama ang Pilipinas na isulong at pagtibayin ang pagpapatupad at pagpapasunod sa mga batas pangkalikasan. Isa itong napakagandang simulain ng isang ugnayang makapagsasaayos ng mga problemang dulot ng pagkasira ng ating mga likas-yaman. 38. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ____________. a. informativ b. descriptiv c. narativ d. ekspositori Sa isang Parliamentary System, ang namumuno sa gobyerno (ang tawag sa kanya ay Prime Minister o Premier) ay di direktang hinahalal ng mamamayan. Sa sistemang ito, ang mga 91
mamamayan ay naghahalal muna ng mga kasapi ng Parliament. Ang mga kasapi naman ng Parliament ang maghahalal ng Prime Minister. Ang Prime Minister, kasama ang kanyang gabinete na pipiliin din niya mula sa mga kasapi ng Parliament, ang siyang magpapatakbo ng gobyerno. Kadalasan, ang pinuno ng partidong may pinakamaraming nanalo sa Parliament ang siyang pinipiling Prime Minister. 39. Ang talata ay isang uri ng tekstong ___________. a. informativ b. descriptiv c. narativ d. ekspositori 40. Ito ay pagsasagawa ng plano, pamamaraan, patakaran o batas upang magkaroon ng isang pamantayan sa paggamit ng alpabetong Filipino. a. intelektwalisasyon b. pagsasalin c. instandardisasyon d. ispeling 41. Kailangang itaas ang antas ng wikang Filipino upang magamit ito sa mga larangang pangkaisipan tulad agham, medisina, teknolohiya, at iba pa. a. intelektwalisasyon b. pagsasalin c. instandardisasyon d. ispeling 42. Ang lahat ng wika ay arbitraryo dahil a. nagkakaiba-iba ang sistema ng paggamit nito b. may napagkasunduang sistema ng paggamit nito c. may mga di sumusunod sa itinakdang sistema ng paggamit nito d. ginagamit ito sa pakikipag-usap sa ibang tao 43. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang di totoo? a. Ang wika ay may istruktura. b. Ang wika ay binubuo ng mga tunog. c. Ang wika ay di nanghihiram. d. Ang wika ay may katumbas na simbolo o sagisag. 44. Tawag sa isang taong maraming alam na wika a. dalubwika b. polyglot c. linguist d. translator 45. Paraan ng pagsasalita na naririnig sa isang partikular na lalawigan o bayan. a. sociolect b. idiolect c. dialect d. punto 46. May sariling register ang ekonomiks. Ang register ay ______________. a. mga salitang hinihiram mula sa ibang wikang banyaga b. mga salitang di mahahanapan ng katumbas sa wikang Filipino c. salitang kalimitang ginagamit sa isang larangan tulad ng ekonomiks d. salitang pinanatili na lamang ang orihinal na ispeling 92
47. Alin sa sumusunod ang daglat? a. KWF /key-dobolyu-ef/ b. Fe /ef-i/ c. Kgg. /kapital key-ji-ji/ d. MLQ /em-el-kyu/ 48. Alin sa sumusunod ang di papantig? a. pa-pan-tig b. p-a-p-a-n-t-i-g c. pa-ti-tik d. bay-ba-yi 49. NAGPAGANDAHAN – Ilang pantig mayroon ang salitang ito? a. 4 b. 5 c. 6 d. 7 50. Ito ay siyentipikong pag-aaral ng wika. a. translation b. sociolingguistics c. lingguistics d. code switching 51. Alin sa sumusunod na pahayag ang di totoo? a. Ang wikang Filipino ay naging instrumentong politikal nang sakupin tayo ng dayuhan noong siglo 16. b. Ang Doctrina Christiana ay inilimbag para sa mga katutubo. c. Ang pagsasalin ng mga tekstong Espanyol ang panimulang hakbang sa pag-angkin ng mga misyonero sa Tagalog. d. Wikang katutubo ang ginamit ng mga Kastila sa pagpapalaganap ng Kristiyanismo. 52. Ang Florante at Laura ni Francisco Balagtas Baltazae ay isang ___________. a. diona b. awit c. korido d. romance 53. Sino ang sumulat ng tulang “Sagot ng Espanya sa Hibik ng Filipinas”? a. Jose Rizal b. Andres Bonifacio c. Marcelo H. del Pilar d. Graciano Lopez-Jaena 54. Kinikilalang “Ama ng Maikling Kuwento ng Tagalog” a. Edgardo M. Reyes b. Rogelio Sicat c. Deogracias A. Rosario d. Genoveva Edroza Matute 55. Alin sa sumusunod ang pangungusap na walang paksa? a. Maraming salamat! b. Sasama ka ba? c. Namili kami sa Divisoria. d. Alin ang bibilin mo? III. Tukuyin ang kahulugan ng sumusunod na pahayag idyomatiko sa kahon sa ibaba. Isulat ang titik ng sagot sa patlang. 93
a. mabagal lumakad
b. madaldal
c. may asawa na
d. iniligtas sa kamatayan
e. matinding kagutuman
f. masama ang rekord
g. malaki ang agwat h. matinding pagsubok _____1. Naghunusdili ang babae kaya naayos agad ang problema. _____2. Parangi.gutom na ng asosarili ang batang aking pinakain.j. malaking kamalasan nagpigil _____3. Hindi matanggap ni Mang Nestor ang dagok ng kapalaran sa kanilang pamilya. _____4. May pananagutan na sa buhay ang kanyang napangasawa. _____5. Parang palakang kokak kung magsalita ang babaeng iyon. _____6. Inagaw sa kamatayan ni Aling Lilia ang anak sa nasusunog nilang bahay. _____7. Parang nakikipagprusisyon ang batang iyong kung maglakad. _____8. Langit at lupa ang kanilang kalagayan kaya di nagtagal ang kanilang pagsasama. _____9. Nagdaan ako sa butas ng karayom bago ko natamo ang aking mga pangarap. _____10. Hindi siya nanalo sa eleksyon dahil basa ang kanyang papel. Pagsasalin. Tukuyin ang katumbas sa salitang ingles ng sumusunod na matalinghagang mga pananalita. Isulat ang titik ng sagot sa patlang. a. one who speaks convincingly b. one who immediately strikes another with his hand or fist when irritated c. to live in solitude d. cruel; merciless; ruthless e. great liking; passionately fond of f. sterile; unproductive g. one who has no perseverance; one who just relies on whatever fortunes comes his way h. very much alike; very similar i. hard-headed j. prostitute; whore ____11. Hindi na magkakaanak si Sonia dahil sira ang aparato niya. ____12. Matigas ang ulo ng kanyang anak. ____13. Ang napangasawa niya ay kalapating mababa ang lipad. ____14. Marami siyang naloko dahil matamis ang dila niya. ____15. Walang puso ang pumatay ng aso. ____16. Patay na patay ang binata sa anak na babae ni Mang Gustin. ____17. Nag-ermitanyo si Ruben nang mamatay ang maybahay. ____18. Parang biniyak na bunga ang magkapatid. ____19. Magaan ang kamay ni Sally sa mga anak. ____20. Ang taong parang hipong tulog ay hindi uunlad sa buhay. Na o Pa (time markers) 21. Dagdagan ang pagkain Kumain ka _____. 22. Simulan ang pagkain 94
Kumain ka _____. 23. Kadarating pa lang Dumating _____ siya. 24. Simulan ang pagtulog Matulog ka _____. 25. Dagdagan ang oras ng paghihintay. Hintayin _____ natin siya. 26. Huwag ng hintayin. Iwan _____ natin siya. 27. Simulan ang pag-aaral. Mag-aral ka _____. 28. Pagtataka sa pagdating Aba nandito ka _____ pala! 29. Hindi matanda Bata _____ si Tolits. 30. Humihingi ng dagdag. Bigyan mo ako ng isa _____. IV. Tukuyin ang kahulugan ng sumusunod na pahayag idyomatiko sa kahon sa ibaba. Isulat ang titik ng sagot sa patlang.
_____1. _____2. _____3. _____4. _____5.
a. payat na mataas
g. hindi magkasundo
b. kinukuwartahan
h. lumalaban sa makapangyarihan
c. mapagpatawad
i. buhay na maraming pagsubok
d. matalik at matapat na kaibigan
j. naubos ang pera sa sugal
e. anak na maliliit k. ngiting pakunwari Ngiting aso ang ipinakita niya sa kanyang kaibigan. Parang aso’t pusa ang magkapatid. f. walang galang ay dala niya ang kanyang l. mga abubot Kahit saan siya magtungo mga retaso. Parang tutubing karayom ang banyagang kanyang napangasawa. Kahiramang suklay niya ang aking kapatid na babae. 95
_____6. Nanalo siya sa eleksyon dahil may krus sa dibdib ang taong iyon. _____7. Baligtad ang bulsa ni Mang Nestor kahapon sa perya. _____8. Naging palabigasan ni Lilia ang kanyang anak na panganay dahil may trabaho na ito. _____9. Pilit tinahak ni Sally ang landas na matinik kung kaya siya nagtagumpay. _____10. Huwag mo nang ituloy ang demanda, para ka lang bumangga sa pader. Pagsasalin. Tukuyin ang katumbas sa Ingles ng sumusunod na matalinghagang mga pananalita. Isulat ang titik ng sagot sa patlang. _____11. Hilamos-pusa ang kanyang ginawa sapagkat maginaw ang panahon. _____12. Hubarin mo na ang damit mo sapagkat hinahabol na ng sabon. _____13. Huwag ka nang magpilit sumama sa piknik nila baka masabon ako ng Nanay kapag nalamang umalis ka. _____14. Kumukulo ang dugo ko tuwing nakababasa ako tungkol sa mga lalaking nangaabuso ng mga babae. _____15. Maraming hirap na ang tiniis mo sa iyong asawa kaya kailangan mo nang magdilat ng mata. _____16. Nagdamdam si Angela nang malaman niyang siya’y pamasak-butas lamang sa kasintahan ni Ruben. _____17. Hindi magustuhan ni Rosa si Roy dahil sa ginawa niyang ligaw-Intsik. _____18. Ang taong mahaba ang dila ay malimit maging dahilan ng away. _____19. Makatulo-laway ang katawan ng babaing nakilala nila kanina sa parke. _____20. Makalaglag-matsing ang tinging iniukol ni Tomas sa nililigawang si Nena. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j.
to be scolded; to be reprimanded to open the eyes conveyor of what is heard or seen; talkative; tale bearing substitute an alluring look or a fascinating stare wooing by means of giving gifts and visiting the ladylove at noontime mouth-watering very angry; very much annoyed very dirty ; needs bathing or washing quick and superficial washing of the face
Direksyon: Piliin ang titik ng sagot sa bawat bilang. 21. Ipinagdiriwang ang Buwan ng Wika tuwing buwan ng ____________. a. Marso b. Abril c. Hunyo d. Agosto 22. Ang Araw ni Balagtas ay tuwing ____________. a. Marso 2 b. Abril 2 c. Hunyo 2 d. Agosto 2 23. Manunulat-Propagandista na gumamit ng sagisag-panulat na “Laong-Laan”. 96
a. b. c. d.
Jose P. Rizal Marcelo H. Del Pilar Graciano Lopez-Jaena Mariano Ponce
24. Alin sa mga sumusunod ang hindi akda ni Emilio Jacinto? a. La Patria b. A Mi Madre c. Liwanag at Dilim d. Dasalan at Tocsohan 25. Alin sa sumusunod na salita ang dapat na walang gitling (-)? a. kahoy-gubat b. ala-ala c. kabi-kabila d. maka-Johnson 26. Tinutukoy si Maria Josefa Cruz at sinasabi ang kanyang buong pangalan. Maaaring itinuturo lamang si Maria, o maaari rin namang kaharap siya ng mga nag-uusap. a. Maria Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// b. Maria/ Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// c. Maria Josefa/ Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// d. Maria Josefa Cruz/ ang tawag sa kanya.// 27. Kinakausap si Maria, at ipinakikilala sa kanya si Josefa Cruz. a. Maria Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// b. Maria/ Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// c. Maria Josefa/ Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// d. Maria Josefa Cruz/ ang tawag sa kanya.// 28. Kausap ang isang babae na Maria Josefa ang pangalan. Ipinakikilala sa kanya si Cruz, o kaya’y itinuturo si Cruz. a. Maria Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// b. Maria/ Josefa Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// c. Maria Josefa/ Cruz ang tawag sa kanya.// d. Maria Josefa Cruz/ ang tawag sa kanya.// 29. Namili ng mga tela ang nanay sa Baclaran para kay Mely. a. pokus sa layon b. pokus sa ganapan c. pokus sa tagaganap d. pokus sa tagatanggap 30. Binili ng nanay ang mga tela sa Baclaran para kay Mely a. pokus sa layon b. pokus sa ganapan c. pokus sa instrumento d. pokus sa tagatanggap Piliin ang wastong sagot sa loob ng panaklong. 97
31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.
Nawawala ng takip (nang, ng) kaldero. Tawag (nang, ng) tawag ang kanyang amang nasa sa Singapore. Ipinamana na (nang, ng) matanda ang kanyang mga lupa sa anak. Paano (daw, raw) natin ipagdiriwang ang Buwan ng Wika? Bakit di pa (doon, roon) sila matulog bukas? Tinutulungan (raw, daw) nila ang mga batang-lansangan. Dumating (rin, din) ang mga hinihintay naming lumang damit. Nagsalita (din, rin) ang mga manggagawang nawalan ng trabaho. (May, Mayroong) batang naiwan sa loob ng simbahan. (May, Mayroon) siyang aasikasuhin sa Maynila. (May, Mayroon) mga dadalhin akong aklat bukas. (May, Mayroon) pa kaya akong masasakyan pauwi? (MakaNora, Maka-Nora) pala ang nanay mo. (Maka-bansa, Makabansa) ang aking mga mag-aaral. Sa (ika-17, ika 17) ng Abril ang kanyang alis papuntang Canada. (Ikalawa, Ika-lawa) ko ng pagpunta rito. (Dalhin, Dalhan) mo ng pagkain ang iyong tatay sa bukid. (Dalhin, Dalhan) mo na itong bigas sa tindahan. (Walisan, Walisin) mo na ang iyong silid. (Walisan, Walisin) natin ang mga tuyong dahon sa bakuran.
LET Reviewer- Mathematics Lecture Notes
ARITHMETIC
Real numbers – all numbers having decimal representations. Rational numbers – all numbers that is a quotient of two integers whose divisor is not equal to zero. Irrational numbers – any that is not rational and represented by a non repeating decimal. A. Integers – the set of positive numbers, zero, and negative numbers. I = {…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3…} Operation on Integers Addition In adding integers with the same sign, add the numbers and copy the sign of the given numbers. Example: a) (-3) + (-6) = -9
b) 2 + 5 = 7
In adding integers with opposite signs, subtract the numbers and copy the sign of the larger number. Example:
98
a) (-12) + 8 = -4
b) 18 + (-15) = 3
Subtraction In subtracting integers, change the sign of the subtrahend. Then, proceed to the steps in adding integers. Example: a)
14 – (-5) = 14 + 5 = 19
b) -8 – (-10) = -8 + (-10) = -18
Multiplication/Division The sign of the product/quotient of two integers with the same sign is positive (+). Examples: a) (-3) (-3) = 9
b) 4 / 2 = 2
The sign of the product/quotient of two integers with opposite signs is negative (-). Examples: a) 14 x (-3) = -42
b) (-51) / 3 = -17
B. Law of Addition and Multiplication Commutative Law of Addition A+B=B+A Associative Law of Addition A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C Commutative Law of Multiplication AB = BA Associative Law of Multiplication A (BC) = (AB) C Distributive Law (A + B) C = AC + BC C. Least Common Multiple (LCM) The LCM of two or more numbers is the smallest number which is the common multiple among the numbers. Example: Find the LCM of 18 and 24. i) 18 = 3 x 3x 2 24 = 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 ii) The common factor is 3 and 2, so delete these in one of the factors iii) LCM is equal to 3 x 3 x 2 x 2 x 2 or 72 D. Divisibility A number is divisible by a certain number if the remainder of their quotient is equal to zero. Divisibility by 2 – even number Example: 22 is an even number, therefore it is divisible by 2
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Divisibility by 3 – sum of digits is divisible by 3 Example: The sum of the number 111 is equal to three (1+1+1 = 3) which is therefore 111 is divisible by 3. Divisibility by 4 – Last two digits is divisible by 4
divisible by 3,
Example: The last two digits of the number 528 is 28 which is divisible by 4, therefore 528 is divisible by 4. Divisibility by 5 – Last digit ends by 5 or 10 Example: The last digit of 635 is 5 therefore it is divisible by 5. Divisibility by 6 – divisible by 2 and 3 Example: 222 is an even number which makes it divisible by 2. The sum of its digits is equal to 6 which is divisible by 3. Since it is both divisible by 2 and 3, 222 is divisible by 6. Divisibility by 8 – The last three digits is divisible by 8 Example: The last three digits of 6328 is 328 which is divisible by 8, therefore 6328 is divisible by 8. Divisibility by 9 – sum of digits is divisible by 9 Example: The sum of 2736 is 18 which is divisible by 9, therefore 2736 is divisible by 9. Divisibility by 10 – ends with zero Example: The last digit of 820 is zero therefore it is divisible by 10. E. Fraction – a number written as a ratio of two whole numbers. Expressing Mixed Numbers as Fractions A mixed number consists of a whole number and a fraction. Any mixed number can be changed into fraction. One way of changing a mixed number to fraction is by multiplying the whole number to the denominator of the fraction and then the product will be added to the numerator. The result will then be written over the denominator. Example: Change 2 3/5 into a fraction ((2 x 5) + 3) / 5 = 13/5 Multiplication of fractions In multiplying fractions, multiply the numerators together for the numerator of the product and the denominators together for the denominator of he product. Example: 5/8 x 3/7 = 15/56 Division of fractions The division of fraction is changed to multiplication of fraction by changing the divisor into its reciprocal and proceeding as in multiplication. Example: ¾ / 4/5 = ¾ x 5/4 = 15/16 Addition/Subtraction of fractions
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When the fractions have the same denominator, add or subtract the numerators and write the result over the common denominator. Example: 2/15 + 6/15 = 8/15 When the fractions have different denominators, express the fraction to equivalent fractions having a common denominator. Find the Least Common Denominator. The LCD of the desired fraction is the Least Common Multiple (LCM) of the given denominators. Example: ¾ + 7/8 + 5/6 = 18/24 + 21/24 + 20/24 = 59/24 Finding the LCD, 4=2x2 8=2x2x2 6=2x3 LCD = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 = 24 Addition/Subtraction of Mixed Numbers The sum/difference of mixed fractions is equal to the sum/difference of the whole number added to the sum/difference of the fraction. Example: 3 ½ + 4 2/6 = 3 3/6 + 4 2/6 = 7 5/6 Lowest Term A fraction is n its lowest term if the numerator and the denominator are prime to each other. Two numbers are prime to each other when the only common divisor or factor is 1. To express a fraction in its lowest terms, divide the numerator and denominator by a factor common to both until the only common divisor is 1. Example: 24/36 = (24/12) / (36/12) = 2/3 Equivalent Fractions F. Decimals Addition of Decimals In adding decimals, write the given numbers so that the decimal point falls in line or arranged in one column. Then proceed as in addition of whole numbers and place the decimal point to the sum in the same column as the other decimal points. Example: Add 32.8, 5.235, 122.2
+
32.8 5.235 122.2 160.235
Subtraction of Decimals Write the given numbers so that the decimal point falls in line or arranged in one column. Then proceed as in subtraction of whole numbers and place the decimal point to the difference in the same column as the other decimal points. If the minuend contains fewer figures after the decimal point than the subtrahend, annex zeroes.
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Example: Subtract 2.34 from 12.5
-
12.50 2.34 10.16
Multiplication of Decimals To multiply a decimal, multiply as in whole numbers; then, beginning from the right of the product, move the decimal point to the left depending on the number of decimal places of both factors. Example: Multiply 53.165 by 3.02 53.165 x 3.02 = 160.5583 Division of Decimals To divide a decimal, divide as in whole numbers and place the decimal point in the quotient above the point in the dividend. Example: Divide 81.5 by 2 When the divisor is a decimal fraction, convert the divisor into a whole number by moving the decimal point to the right of it, and move also the decimal point of the dividend. Example: Divide 32.2 by .125 G. Percent Percent is only another name for hundredths. Since percent means hundredths, it can be converted to a decimal or a fraction.
Conversion of fractions, decimal and percents Fraction to Decimal Divide the numerator by the denominator. Example: Change 3/5 to decimal form. 3/5 = 0.60 Decimal to Percent Move the decimal point two places to the right and write the % sign. Example: Change 0.02 to percent 0.02 = 2% Fraction to Percent First, change the fraction to decimal by dividing and then change the decimal to percent by moving the decimal point and writing the % sign. Example: Change 2/5 to percent 2/5 = 0.4 0.4 = 40% Percent to Decimal Move the decimal point two places to the left and remove the % sign.
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Example: Change 35% to decimal 35% = 0.35 Decimal to Fraction Write the decimal number as the numerator of the fraction. The denominator of the fraction will be the last place value in the decimal. Example: Change 0.7 to fraction 0.7 = 7/10 Percent to Fraction Write the percent as the numerator of a fraction with a denominator of 100. Example: Change 23% to fraction 23% = 23/100 Example: In a class of 25 students, 10 are male. We can describe this statement by saying: a) 2/5 of the class are males. (Fraction) b) 0.4 of the class are males. (Decimal) c) 40% of the class are males. (Percent) NOTE: In verbal problems concerning fractions, decimals and percents, the word “of” usually means multiplication. Finding a percent of a number To find the percent of a certain number, express the percent as a decimal and multiply. Example: a) 5% of 600 = 0.05 x 600 = 30 b) 20% of 50 = 0.20 x 50 = 10 To find what percent one number is of another number, divide the first number by the second and express the result as percent. Example: a) Find what percent 25 is of 625 25/625 = 0.04 or 4% b) 30 is what percent of 120? 30/120 = 0.25 or 25% To find a number when a certain percent is given, express the percent as a decimal and divide the known part of the number by the decimal. Example: a) 15 is 25% of what number? 15 / 0.25 = 60 b) 25 is 10% of what number? 25 / 0.10 = 250 Finding the percent of increase and decrease To find the percent of increase and decrease in a quantity, divide the amount of increase or decrease by the original number before the increase or decrease.
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Example: a) A farmer harvested 60 cavans of palay last year and 80 cavans this year. What is the percent of increase? 80 – 60 = 20 20/60 = 33 1/3 % b) A farmer harvested 80 cavans of palay last year and 60 cavans this year. Find the percent of decrease. 80 – 60 = 20 20/80 = 25% H. Ratio and Proportion Ratio – comparison of two quantities - expressed by the quotient obtained by dividing the first quantity by the second quantity Proportion – formed when we express the fact that one ratio is equal to another Example: 2:4 = 3:6 2/4 = 3/6 2(6) = 3(4) 12 = 12 Kinds of Proportion a)
Direct Proportion If two quantities are related in a manner that an increase or decrease in one will produce the same kind of change in the other, the two quantities are directly proportional with each other. Example: Ms. Ramirez used 15 meters of cloth for 6 dresses. How many meters will be used for 10 dresses? 15:6 = n:10 15/6 = n/10 6n = 150 N = 25 meters
b) Indirect Proportion If two quantities are related in a manner where an increase or decrease in one will produce an opposite change in the other, then the two quantities are inversely proportional with each other. Example: If 40 men can build a house for 15 days, how long will 20 men do the same work? 40:20 = n:15 40/20 = n/15 20n = 600 N = 30 days c)
Partitive Proportion This proportion is used when a number is divided into parts proportional to a given ratio. Example: Divide 636 into parts proportional to 3:4:5 3 + 4 + 5 = 12 3/12 x 636 = 159 4/12 x 636 = 212
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5/12 x 636 = 265 I.
Consecutive Numbers A collection of numbers is said to be consecutive if each number is the successor of the number which precedes it. Example: a) 1,2,3,4
b) 2,4,6,8
Average of Consecutive Numbers The average of consecutive numbers is the average of the smallest and largest number. Example: a) 2,4,6,8 (2 + 8) / 2 = 10 / 2 = 5 Counting Consecutive Integers The number of integers from R to S inclusive is S – R + 1. Example: How many integers are there from 21 to 242, inclusive? 242 -21 + 1 = 222 Sum of Consecutive Numbers Sum = average x number of terms Example: What is the sum of the integers from 21 to 242? Average = (242 + 21) / 2 = 131.5 No. of terms = (242 -21 + 1) = 222 Sum = 222 x 131.5 = 29193
J.
Exponents and Roots Exponent – no. of times that a number/base will be multiplied to itself. bn or b^n where b = base n = exponent Example: 3^4=3x3x3x3 = 81 Laws of Exponent
bm x bn = bm+n Example: 33 x 34 = 3(3+4) = 37
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(bm)^n = bmn Example: (32)2 = 3(2x2) ambm = (ab)^m Example: 22 x 32 = (6)2 NOTE: b0 = 1 , for any non-zero value of b
a)
Example: 10800 = 1 b) b-n = 1/bn Example: 25-2 = 1/252 = 1/625 Roots = an exponent that is a fraction 1
2 22 Laws of Radicals >
n
a n b n ab
Example: n
>
n
9 2 16 2 9 16 12
2
a n a b b 3
Example:
3
216 3 216 2 27 27
K. Multiplication Shortcuts To save time and effort a)
Multiplying by 10 or a multiple of 10 When a number is multiplied by 10 or by a multiple of 10 (100, 1000, etc.), move the decimal point of the number as many places to the right as there are zeroes in the multiple of 10. Example: 22.5 x 10 = 225 22.5 x 100 = 2250 22.5 x 1000 = 22500
b) Multiplying by the reciprocal of 10 or its multiple When a number is multiplied by a reciprocal of 10 or its multiples (0.1, 0.01, 0.001, etc.), move the decimal point of the number to as many places to the left as there are decimal places in the reciprocal of 10 or its multiple.
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Example: 22.5 x 0.1 = 2.25 22.5 x 0.01 = 0.225 22.5 x 0.001 = 0.0225 c)
Multiplying two numbers that both end with 5 and whose lefthand digits are the same. Two numbers ending with five when multiplied shall always have 25 for its rightmost digits. The lefthand digits of the product will be obtained by multiplying the lefthand digit of the multiplicand by a number which is the same digit increased by 1. Example: 25 x 25 = 2 x 2 = 6 The rightmost digits, 5 and 5 were multiplied to get 25. The lefthand digit 2, was multiplied by 3 (2 increased by 1) which gives a result of 6. Putting these together, the result is 625. 45 x 45 = 4 x 4 = 20 The rightmost digits, 5 and 5 were multiplied to get 25. The lefthand digit 4, was multiplied by 5 (4 increased by 1) which gives a result of 20. Putting these together, the result is 2025.
d) Multiplying two numbers whose rightmost digits make a sum of 10 and whose lefthand digits are the same. When multiplying such numbers, we multiply the rightmost digits of the two numbers. The other digit shall be multiplied by a number which is the same digit increased by 1. Example: 36 x 34 = 3 x 3 = 12 The rightmost digits, 6 and 4, were multiplied and gave the result of 24. The lefthand digit 3, was multiplied by 4 (3 increased by 1) and gave a result of 12. Putting these together, the result is 1224. *If the rightmost digits are 9 and 1, we will write its product as “09”. Example: 49 x 41 = 4 x 4 = 2009 The rightmost digits, 9 and 1 were multiplied to get 09. The other digit 4, was multiplied by 5 (4 increased by 1) to get 20. Putting these together, we get 2009. e)
Multiplying two digit numbers to 11 The lefthand of the two digit number that will be multiplied will be placed on the lefthand of the product. The righthand of the two digit number will be placed on the righthand of the product. The middle part of the product is the sum of the lefthand and righthand of the two digit number. If the sum is greater than 10, it will be carried to the lefthand digit number. Example: a)
23 x 11 = 2 5 3 For the middle part, 2+3 = 5 b) 59 x 11 = 6 4 9 For the middle part. 5+9 = 14 1 will added to the lefthand digit which is 5 5+1 = 6
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The answer will then be 649.
ALGEBRA ALGEBRA Algebra is a branch of mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation and quantity. The name is derived from the treatise written by the Persian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and geographer, Muhammad bin Mūsā alKhwārizmī titled Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala (meaning "The Book of Compulsion and Encountering" "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing"), which provided symbolic operations for the systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. Together with geometry, analysis, combinatorics, and number theory, algebra is one of the main branches of mathematics. Elementary algebra is often part of the curriculum in secondary education and provides an introduction to the basic ideas of algebra, including effects of adding and multiplying numbers, the concept of variables, definition of polynomials, along with factorization and determining their roots. In addition to working directly with numbers, algebra covers working with symbols, variables, and set elements. Addition and multiplication are viewed as general operations, and their precise definitions lead to structures such as groups, rings and fields. A variable is a letter that represents a number. Since it represents a number, you treat it just like you do a number when you do various mathematical operations involving variables. “x” is a very common variable that is used in algebra, but you can use any letter (a, b, c, d, ....) to be a variable. An algebraic expression is a number, variable or combination of the two connected by some mathematical operation like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponents, and/or roots. 2x + y, a/5, and 10 - r are all examples of algebraic expressions. You evaluate an expression by replacing the variable with the given number and performing the indicated operation. Sometimes, you find yourself having to write out your own algebraic expression based on the wording of a problem. In that situation, you have to 1. 2. 3. 4.
read the problem carefully, pick out key words and phrases and determine their equivalent mathematical meaning, replace any unknowns with a variable, and put it all together in an algebraic expression. Here are some commonly used terms that signal specific mathematical operation.
Addition: sum, plus, add to, added to, more than, increased by, total Subtraction: difference of, minus, subtracted from, less than, decreased by, less, diminished by Multiplication: product, times, multiply, twice, thrice, of Division: quotient divide, into, ratio
Simplifying algebraic expressions Some pointers to remember:
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A. To simplify any given expression, it is advised that one should be guided by the acronym, PEMDAS (ParenthesesExponentiation- Multiplication-Division- Addition-Subtraction). The strategy suggests that: 1. The operations inside the parenthesis (or any grouping symbol) should be performed first. 2. Exponent should be dealt after step 1 is accomplished. 3. The operations: Multiplication and Division should be performed before Addition and Subtraction. B. The order in which letters and numbers are used as factors does not matter. (Commutative Property of Multiplication) Example: 21mn = 21nm C. You may use the following laws of exponents to simplify terms with roots or powers. D. Combining like terms Terms having identical literal coefficients are combined. POLYNOMIALS Polynomials are algebraic expressions which is the sum of finite number of terms, each of which is the product of a finite collection of numbers and variables. A polynomial contains positive integral exponents. 6x2 + 4y – 5 is a polynomial while 20x-4 + y2 -3 is not. Polynomials like 3x2 and 5xyz4 which have only one term are called monomials. Those with two terms like x – 4y are called binomials. 5x3- xy2 + 4 in an example of a trinomial; that is, it is composed of three terms. I.
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials Just like any algebraic expression, the process of addition can be conveniently carried out by combining like terms. In order to subtract two polynomials, convert the problem to addition and proceed.
II. Multiplication of Polynomials Multiplication of polynomials is based upon the method of multiplying monomials, together with the repeated use of the distributive law. Binomials as Factors a) Product of Two Binomials Illustrative examples: 1. (x + 1) (x + 2) = x2 + 3x + 2 2. (x + 5) (x – 7) = x2 – 2x – 35 Note: When multiplying two binomials with only one variable, the middle term is just the sum of the constant terms where each one takes the operation that precedes it as its sign (i.e., 1 for x + 1, and -7 for x7). b) Binomial Raised to a Nonnegative Integer It is practical to use the Pascal’s Triangle in order to identify the numerical coefficient of specific term of a binomial expansion of a binomial of the form (a + b)n , where a and b are any variable, and n is a nonnegative integer. The Pascal’s Triangle is illustrated below: 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 4 6 4 1 1
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5
1
5 10 10 5
1
The numbers on the left indicate the value by which the binomial is being raised. For example, “3” is for (x + y)3 and the numbers on its right are the coefficients of the expansion. So that (x + y)3 = 1x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 The literal coefficients are either a single variable raised to the highest exponent or a product of the two variables whose exponents add up to the original (the exponent of the given). c. Special Products For any variable x and a, or any constant a, (x + a) (x + a) = (x + a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2 (x – a) (x – a) = (x - a)2 = x2 + 2ax + a2 (x + a) (x – a) = x2 - a2 (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab (x + a) (x2 - ax + a2) = x3 + a3 (x - a) (x2 + ax + a2) = x3 - a3 (x + a)3 = (x3 + 3ax2 +3a2 x + a3) 3 (x - a) = (x3 - 3ax2 +3a2 x + a3) III. Division of Polynomials The following are some of the points to consider when dividing a polynomial: 1. 2. 3.
If the divisor is a monomial (a variable, a constant or a product of variable/s and constant) each term is to be divided one-by- one. If the divisor is a binomial, the dividend should be written in a decreasing order of exponent. In case a The division continues step by step until a remainder is reached whose degree is less than the degree of the divisor. If the remainder is zero, the division is said to be exact. Example: Divide 6x3 – x2 + 11x + 4 by 3x + 1 2x2 – x + 4 3x + 1 / 6x3 – x2 + 11x + 4 - 6x3 + 2x2 2 - 3x + 11x - - 3x2 - x 12x + 4 - 12x + 4 0
EQUATIONS An equation is a statement that says two algebraic expressions are equal. There are two important things to note in solving equations (finding the roots or value of the variable/s that will satisfy the given): i) If you add or subtract the same algebraic expression to or from each side of an equation, the resulting equation is equal to the original equation; and ii) If you multiply of divide both sides of an equation by a nonzero algebraic expression, still the resulting equation is equivalent of the original equation. Solving Two Equations with Two Unknowns A. By Substitution Use one equation to solve for one unknown in terms of the other, change the second equation in only one unknown and then solve.
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Example: Solve for the value of x and y in system of equation, 2x + y = 4 (equation 1) 3x + 2y = 6 (equation 2) Solution: Using equation 1, solve for y in terms of x, y = -2x + 4 (equation 3) Now, substitute the value of y obtained in equation 3 to equation 2, then solve for the value of x. 3x + 2 (-2x + 4) = 6 3x + (-4x) + 8 = 6 -x = 6 - 8 -x (-1) = -2 (-1) x=2 Since y = -2x + 4 (equation 3) and x = 2, by substitution y = -2(2) + 4 y=0 B. By Elimination through addition or subtraction Sometimes we can solve two equations by adding them or subtracting one from the other. Example: Solve for x and y:
x + 2y = 4 (equation 1) 4x – 2y = 6 (equation 2) Solution: Adding equations 1 and 2, we were able to eliminate terms containing the variable y, x + 2y = 4 4x – 2y = 6 5x = 10 then solve for the value of x, 5x = 10 x = 2. By subtracting the value of x to either equation 1 or 2 we will be able to find the value of y. x + 2y = 4 (equation 1) 2 + 2y = 4 2y = 2 y=1 Solving Quadratic Equations Equations in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0, are called quadratic equations. In order to find the value of the variable that will satisfy the given quadratic equation: 1. Group all the terms on one side of the equation so that the other side is zero. 2. Combine the terms on the nonzero side. 3. Factor the expression into linear expressions (if possible). 4. Set the linear factors equal to zero and solve. The method is based on the fact that if a product of an expression is zero, then at least one of the expressions must be zero. Example: Solve for x in x2 + 5x = -6 Solution: 1. x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 2. (x +2) (x + 3) = 0 3. x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0 4. x = -2 or x = -3 Solution set {-2, -3}. Note: a quadratic equation will usually have two different solutions, but it is possible to have only one solution or even no real solution or root.
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You can also solve for the value of the variable in a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula, Given ax2 + bx + c = 0 then
x = -b ± √ b2 – 4ac
The quadratic formula will always give you the solution to any quadratic equation, but if you can factor the equation, factoring will give you the solution in less time. If you can’t find the solution immediately, then use the formula.
2a
Solving Radical Equations When the given variable in an equation occurs in a square root, cube root, and so on, that is; it occurs in a radical, the equation is called a radical equation. In some cases, a suitable operation changes a radical equation into linear or quadratic. √ 2x – 4 - 2 = 0 (3√ 2x – 4 )3 = (2) 3 2x – 4 = 8 2x = 12 x=6 Note that the most commonly used procedure is to isolate the most complicated radical on one side of the equation and then eliminate it by raising both sides of the equation to a power equal to the index of the radical. Example:
3
Checking is necessary to identify the solution set of the given equation. Sometimes, the value(s) do not satisfy the given. Those which satisfy the equation are included in the solution set while those which do not are discarded. Inequalities An inequality is a statement involving two expressions separated by one of the inequality symbols , ≥ or ≠.
The following basic principles are used in working with inequalities: 1. If a < b then a + c < b + c 2. If a < b then a – c < b – c 3. If a < b and c >0 then ac < bc 4. If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc 5. If a < b and c < d then a + c < b + d 6. If a < b and b < c then a < c The above principles also applies when the inequality symbol is replaced by >, ≤, >, ≥ or ≠. As with equations, one method of solving inequalities is to replace it by a series of equivalent inequalities until an inequality with an obvious solution like x > 5 is obtained. Operations used in solving equations may be used to solve inequalities. The following procedures leave the inequality symbol unchanged: i) simplifying both sides of the inequality by combining like terms; ii) adding or subtracting the same expression or quantity to both sides of the inequality; and iii) multiplying or dividing by the same positive number or expression. The following procedure reverses the sense of inequality symbols, thus making it inconsistent: i) ii)
interchanging the two sides of inequality 8 < x becomes x < 8 multiplying or dividing both sides by the same negative expression without changing the inequality symbol
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-4x > 12 becomes -4x > 12 -4 -4 Note: When you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality with a negative quantity, the inequality symbol is replaced as follows: (a) > by < and (b) ≤ by ≥ . Example 1: Solve the inequality 3 (x + 2) ≥ 2 (5 – x) Solution:
3 (x + 2) ≥ 2 (5 – x) 3x + 6 ≥ 10 – 2x 3x + 2x ≥ 10 – 6 5x ≥ 4 x ≥ 4 /5
Example 2: Solve the inequality 4x – 10 < 5x – 3 Solution:
4x – 10 < 5x – 3 -10 + 3 < 5x – 4x -7 < x or x > -7
VERBAL PROBLEMS Verbal Problems are solved by translating them into appropriate algebraic equations. These are the general steps in solving a verbal problem
Read the problem carefully Determine the given and the unknown quantities Write the working equation Solve the equation Check if the answer satisfies the conditions given by the problem
Motion Problems The general formula for this type of problem is: Distance = Rate x Time Example: Two trains start at the same time and travel toward each other from cities 260 miles apart. How many hours will it take for them to meet if one train travels at 60 mi/h and the other travels at 70 mi/h? Given: Rate of train 1: 60 mi/h Rate of train 2: 70 mi/h Distance of Stations from each other = 260 mi Let: t = time from when the train starts to when they meet 60t = distance traveled by train 1 70t = distance traveled by train 2 Solution: 60t + 70t = 260 130t = 260 t=2
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It takes 2 hours for the trains to meet Work Problems It is always assumed that workers in the same category work at the same rate. The general formula for work problems is: 1/t1 + 1/t2 = 1/t where: t1 = time taken by the 1st person t2 = time taken by the 2nd person t = time taken by both the formula can be extended depending on the number of persons involved in the problem Example Jamee can clean the house in 6 hours. Christine can do the same job in 5 hours. How long will it take them to clean the house together? 1/6 + 1/5 = 1/t (1/6 + 1/5)30 = (1/t)30 5 + 6 = 30/t 11 = 30/t t = 30/11 or 2 8/11 hours Counting Problems: In a public survey done by the SWS 60% owned a mobile phone, 80% owned a landline and 50% owned both a mobile phone and a landline. What percent of those surveyed owned a mobile phone or a landline? People who owned a mobile phone or a landline = people who own a mobile phone + people who own a landline – people who own both a landline and a mobile phone People who own a mobile phone or a landline = 60% + 80% – 50% = 90% 90% percent of those surveyed owned either a landline or a mobile phone
VARIATION Direct Variation If the ratio of two variables is a constant (not zero), then either variable is said to vary directly as the other. If the variables are x and y then:. y/x = k where k is called the constant of variation and can be any constant except zero Example:
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If y varies directly as x and x = 13 and y = 5. What is the value of y when x = 21? Solution: If we are given one set of values of x and y, we can solve for the value of k and in turn find the corresponding value of y at a certain value of x. y = kx 5 = 13k k = 5/13 since we need to find the value of y at x = 21 y = 21(5/13) y = 8 1/13 Inverse Variation If the product of two variables x and y is constant (not zero), then x and y is said to vary inversely. xy = k Example: If the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure and if the gas occupies 20 cubic centimeter at a pressure of 40 lb, what is the volume of the gas at a pressure of 50 lb? Solution: We have two variables, the volume and the pressure. Knowing one set of values of V and P, we can solve the constant k. xy = k 800 = k Substituting the value of k in the equation VP = k we can get the new volume of the gas at 80 lb. VP = 800 V = 800/80 V = 10 cc SEQUENCE AND PROGRESSION A sequence is a set of numbers, which obeys a fixed law. In the sequence 3, 6, 9, 12 … 3, 6, 9, 12 are called terms of the sequence. Arithmetic Progression A sequence of numbers, called terms, in which each term after the first is formed from the preceding term by adding to it a fixed number called the common difference. an = a1 + (n-1) d where: an = last term a1 = 1st term in the progression
n = number of terms d = common difference
Example
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Find the 38th term of the series 7,1,-6 . .. Given: a1 = 7 n = 38 d = -6 Solution: an = 7 + (38-1) -6 an = 7 + (37) -6 an = -215 The nth term or the last term of an arithmetic progression can be solved by using the formula: Sn = (n/2) (a1 + an) or Sn = (n/2) (2a1 + (n-1)d) Example: Find the sum of the first 100 terms of the progression 10,7,4 … Solution: Given: a1= 10 n = 100 d = -3 Solution: Sn = (100/2) (2(10)+ (100-1)-3) = 50( 20 + 99(-3)) = 78
Geometric Progression A sequence is a considered a geometric progression when the ratio of two consecutive terms in the sequence is always the same. an = a1r(n-1) where: r = common ratio Example: Write the first 3 terms of the geometric progression in which a n is 5 and r is ½. a2 = 5(1/2) = 5/2 a3 = 5(1/2)2 = 5/4 the first three terms of the geometric progression are 5, 5/2, 5/4
GEOMETRY
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Geometry is an example of a mathematical system. Being a mathematical system, it is characterized by (1) acceptance of undefined terms on which definitions are based and (2) a set of assumed principles from which other principles can be deduced. In geometry, the assumed principles are called postulates in geometry while axioms in algebra. The statements that are deduced (or proved) are known as theorems. Four Parts of a Mathematical System 1. 2. 3. 4.
Undefined terms Defined terms Axioms or postulates Theorems
vocabulary principles
Undefined Terms “Point”, “line”, and “plane” are terms often used without being defined. Instead, they are simply described and serve as building blocks for later terminology. A point, which is represented by a dot, has location but not size; that is, a point has no dimension. Lines have quality of “straightness” that is not defined but assumed. Whereas a point has no dimensions, a line is onedimensional; that is, the distance between any two points on a given line can be measured. Plane, another undefined term is two-dimensional; that is, it has infinite length and infinite width, but no thickness. Notations ↔ “line AB” AB
− “line segment AB” AB → AB
“ ray AB”
AB
“length of segment AB”
Postulate 1 Through two distinct points, there is exactly one line.
Postulate 2 The measure of any line segment is a unique positive number. Postulate 3 If Z is a point on AB and A-Z-B, then AZ + ZB = AB. Postulate 4 Through three non-collinear points, there is exactly one plane.
Postulate 5 If two distinct planes intersect, then their intersection is a line. Postulate 6 Given two distinct points in a plane, the line containing those points also lies in the plane. Sample Problem: In the figure on the right, AB and EF are said to be skew lines because they neither intersect nor are parallel. How many planes are determined by (a) parallel lines AB and DC (ans. 1) (b) intersecting lines AB and BC (ans. 1)
F
G A
117
B E
D
C
(c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
skew lines AB and EF (ans. infinitely many) lines AB, BC, and DC (ans. 1) points A, B, and F (ans. 1) points A, C, and H (ans. 1) points A, C, F, and H (ans. 4)
H
ANGLES If two lines meet at a point, they form an angle. The point is called the vertex of the angle and the lines are called rays of the angle. Thus, as defined, angle is the union of two rays that share a common endpoint. Naming Angles (i)
A
ABC
B
(ii)
B
(Given that B is the vertex Cof the angle)
(iii)
1 or
x where x or 1 is written inside the angle
1
x
Adjacent angles are angles having the same vertex and a common side and one angle is not inside the other. Postulate 7 The measure of an angle is a unique positive number. Postulate 8 If a point D lies in the interior of , then m + m = m ABD DBC
ABC ABC.
Congruent angles are angles with the same measure. Complementary angles are pair of angles whose sum adds up to 90 degrees. Supplementary angles are a pair angles whose measure adds up to 180 degrees. When two straight lines intersect, the pairs of nonadjacent angles formed are known as vertical angles, and vertical angles are congruent. In the figure on the right, and are s s u vertical angles v t as and t u v. Practice on these:
5 1) Consider the figure below, l and m intersect so that m 7
5 6
= 2x + 2y m 8 = 2x – y m 6 = 4x – 2y
8
Find the value of x and y. 2) Given: m RST m TSV m RSV Find x. 3) Suppose that (a) about and
= 2x + 9 = 3x – 2 = 67˚
FAC
R T
S and
FAC
V
CAD
→opposite rays. What can you say are adjacent and AF→ and AD are CAD ? 118
4) The two angles are complementary and one angle is 12 degrees larger than the other. Using the variables x and y, find the size of each angle. 5) Find the value of
z. 7x + 54
z
3x + 90 A transversal is a line that intersects two (or more) other lines at distinct points; all of the lines lie in the same plane. In the figure on the right, the interior angles are: , ,3 exterior angles are:
1,
, and 4
2,
7,
1
6
5 and
3
8 5
Two angles that lie in the same relative positions when two lines are cut by a transversal are corresponding angles.
Corresponding angles:
and 1
5
,
2 4
7
and 3
7, and 2
6 8
6,
and
4
8
Two angles that have different vertices (plural of “vertex”) and lie on opposite sides of the transversal are alternate interior angles. Alternate interior angles: and , 6 and 1 3 5 Two exterior angles that have different vertices and lie on opposite sides of the transversal are alternate exterior angles. Alternate exterior angles:
1 and
,
8
7
and
2 Parallel Lines Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that do not intersect. Postulate 9 Through a point not on a line, exactly one line is parallel to the given line. Postulate 10 If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then the corresponding angles are congruent. Try this:
and m (a) (b) (c) (d)
In the figure, if l║m (read as l parallel to m) 1= 117˚, find m m m m
2 5 4 8
v
l
2
1 3
m
4
5
TRIANGLES 7
119
6 8
A triangle is a 3-sided polygon. Types According to the Number of sides of Equal Length Equilateral triangle “has three sides of equal length” Isosceles triangle “has two sides of equal length” Scalene triangle “none of the sides are equal in length”
Equilateral triangle
Isosceles triangle
Scalene triangle
Types According to Component Angles Acute triangle- all angles measure less than 90˚ Right triangle- has a right angle Obtuse triangle – one of the angle measures greater than 90˚
Acute triangle
Right triangle
Obtuse triangle
Significant Facts About Triangles 1. 2.
The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180˚. The measure of the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of two the remote interior angles. 100˚
130˚
30˚ 3.
If two angles of a triangle are congruent to the two angles of a second triangle, the third angles are congruent.
Illustrative example
− Given ED
− −
┴
AB, BC
┴
−
BFE = 126˚. Find x and y.
AE and m
E C 126˚
F A
120
y
x D
B
Solution: 90˚ + x = 126˚ ( Since 126˚ is the measure of the exterior angle of the triangle and by (2) the sum of the remote angles x and the right angle must be equal to it.) solving for x, x = 126˚ - 90˚ x = 36˚
Alternative solution:
To solve for y, we can use (1). y + x + 90˚ = 180˚
To find the value of y, we can simply subtract the value of x from 90˚ since the angle other than x and y is a right angle.
since x = 36˚ y + 36˚ + 90˚ = 180˚ solving for y, y = 180˚ – ( 36˚ + 90˚) y = 180˚ – ( 126˚) y = 54˚ Therefore x = 36˚ and y = 54˚.
So that y = 90˚ - 36˚ y = 54˚
Right Triangles The Pythagorean Theorem In any right triangle, the sum of the squares of the length of its legs is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse. In symbols, a2 + b2 = c2 where a and b are length of the legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse. Example Find the length of the hypotenuse, x.
3
x
x2 = 32 + 52 x2 = 9 + 25 x2 = 34 ___ x = √34 Note: we only considered the positive root since the length is nonnegative
Special Case:5 30˚ – 60˚ – 90˚ triangle a) The leg opposite the 30˚ angle is ½ the hypotenuse. __ b) The leg opposite the 60˚ angle is of the √ 3hypotenuse. 2 c) An altitude in an equilateral triangle forms a 30˚- 60˚ - 90˚ triangle and is therefore equal to hypotenuse.
121
__ √ of the 3
Formula to find the area of a triangle: A = ½ bh
where b is the length of the base and h is the altitude
For an equilateral triangle,
__
A = s2 √ 3 4
where s is the length of the side of the equilateral triangle.
Polygons Polygon is a closed figure in a plane composed of line segments which meet only at their endpoints. The line segments are called sides of the polygon and a point where two sides meet is called a vertex of the polygon.
B
A
G H
C
D
J
I
ABCD is a polygon while GHIJ is not. 1. 2. 3.
Polygons are classified by the number of angles or sides they have. If the sides and angles of the polygon are all equal in measurement, that polygon is called a regular polygon. The sum of the measures of the angles of a polygon with n sides is (n-2) 180˚.
In a parallelogram: M a) Opposite sides are parallel. b) Opposite sides are congruent. c) Opposite angles are congruent. d) Consecutive angles are supplementary. e) Diagonals bisect each other. P f) Each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
N
O
In a rectangle, in addition to the properties listed above: a) All angles are right angles b) Diagonals are congruent.] In a rhombus, the properties are the same with that of a parallelogram, a) All sides are congruent. b) Diagonals are perpendicular. c) Diagonals bisect the angles. A square has all the properties given above. The apothem of a regular polygon is perpendicular to a side, bisects that side, and also bisects a central angle. OX is an apothem. It bisects AB, and is perpendicular to AB and bisects AOB .
O 122 A
X
B
The area of a regular polygon is equal to one- half of the product of its apothem and perimeter. CIRCLES Circle is a set of points equidistant from a fix point called the center. A tangent is a line that touches a circle at exactly one point; the point of intersection is the point of contact or the point of tangency. A secant is a line (or segment or ray) that intersects a circle at exactly two points. A polygon is inscribed in a circle if its vertices are points on the circle and its sides are chords of the circle. In such case, the circle is circumscribed about the polygon.
CIRCLES, ANGLES and ARCS
E
A
D
1 6
2
F
4
3
O
5
B
C Given: m AB = 92◦ m DA = 114◦ m BC = 138◦ Find the measure of each of the numbered angles. Solution: (a) m 1 = 360˚ – ( m DA + m AB + m BC)
2 = 360˚ – ( 114˚ + 92˚ + 38˚ ) 2 = 360˚ – 344˚ 2 = 16˚ 2 = 8˚ Therefore, angle 1 is equal to 8 degrees. (Note that Theorem 2 is applied to arrive to the final answer.) (b) m
2 = ½ AB = ½ (92˚) = 46˚
TERM Inscribed angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is a point on the circle and whose sides are chords of the circle.
THEOREM 1 A central angle is equal in degreesAto its intercepted arc. B O If AB = 40˚ THEOREM 2 = 40˚ then AOB The measure of an inscribed angle of a circle is one-half the measure of its interceptedAarc. B If AC = 130˚ then 123
ABC = 65˚
C
THEOREM 3 (c) m 3 = ½ (m AB – m CD) but, m CD = 360˚–(m AB + m DA + m BC) = 360˚ - ( 92˚ + 114˚ + 138˚) = 360˚ - 344˚ = 16˚ Now, m 3 = ½ ( 92˚ - 16˚) = ½ ( 76˚) = 37˚
An angle outside the circle formed by two secants, a secant and a tangent, or two tangents is equal in degrees to one half the difference of its intercepted arc.
If RS = 60˚, QR = 20˚ then
RTV = ½ (60˚ - 20˚) = ½ (40˚)
S
=O20˚ T
Q
R
Theorem 4 An angle formed by two chords intersecting in a circle is equal in degrees to one-half of the sum of its intercepted arcs. A C E 40˚ 80˚ If m AD = 40˚ and m CB = 80˚ then
(d) m
(e) m
(f) m
D
B
CEB = 60˚ .
4 = ½ (m AB + m CD) = ½ (92˚ + 16˚) = ½ ( 108˚) = 54˚
5 = ½ ( m DA + BC) = ½ ( 114˚+ 138˚) = ½ ( 252˚) = 126˚
Theorem 5 Two tangent segments drawn to a circle from the same external point are A congruent. O.
B
C
6 = ½ ( m AB) = ½ (92˚) = 46˚
124 ↔
↔
Theorem 6 .O
The radius (or any other line through the center of a circle) drawn to a tangent at the point of tangency is perpendicular to the
FORMULAS IN FINDING THE AREA, VOLUME, PERIMETER and CIRCUMFERENCE tangent at that point. 1. Rectangle:
AR = lw PR = 2l + 2w where l is the legnth and w is the width
2. Parallelogram: A = bh where b is the length of the base and h is the altitude P = 2b + 2 (length of the slanting side) 3. Rhombus: A = ½ d1d2 P = 4s 4. Square: A = s2 where s is the length of the sides P = 4s 5. Triangle: A = ½ bh where b is the length of the base and h is the altitude P = a + b + c where a, b, and c are the length of the sides of the Equilateral triangle: A = s2
__ √3
triangle
4 5.
Trapezoid: A = ½ h (b1+ b2) where b1 and b2 are length of the parallel sides
6. Circle: A = πr2 where r is the radius and π is the constant (approx. 3.14) C = 2πr or C = πd where d is the diameter 7. Regular polygon: A = ½ a P P = n∙s
where a is the apothem and P is the perimeter n is the number of sides and s is the length of the sides
Exercises 1. If m 1 = 3x – 9, what the value of x?
1
50˚
30˚ 125 h a
b
2. If h = 12 and a = 9 then b = _____ ?
3. In triangle ABC, C is a right angle, AC = 40, BC = 30. Find the altitude to the hypotenuse.
C
B
A
4. Find the area of an equilateral triangle with perimeter equal to 9 cm.
__ 5. An equilateral triangle has an altitude of 5
cm √3long. Find its area.
Note: To be given before the end of the first 2 hours—Geometry Exercises 1. O is the center of the circle. Find the value of x.
x O
140˚
2. Find the value of y.
y
30˚
80˚
3. Find the value of x.
(6x + 54) ˚ X2
(4x – 6)˚
126
4. What is the value of w?
180˚
w
5. In the figure below, if radius OX is 12 and the area of the right triangle OXY is 72, what is the area of the shaded region?
X
O
Y Note: Figure not drawn to scale
Note: To be given before the end of the last 2 hours (Session for Geometry)
TRIGONOMETRY A. Trigonometric Functions Let P(x,y) be any point other than the origin on the terminal side of an angle θ in standard position. The distance from the point to the origin is r 2
x2 y2
The six trigonometric functions are defined as:
y P(x,y)
r
θ x
127
sin
y r
csc
r y
tan
y x
cos
x r
sec
r x
cot
x y
Example: The terminal side of an angle α goes through the point (5,12). Find the values of the six trigonometric functions of angle α. Finding r:
r 2 x2 y2
r 2 52 12 2 r 2 25 144 r 2 169 r 13 12 13 5 cos 13
sin
13 12 13 sec 5 csc
12 5 5 cot 12 tan
B. Reciprocal Identities Some of the functions are reciprocals of each other. Reciprocal identities hold for any angle θ that does not lead to a zero denominator.
1 1 csc csc sin 1 1 cos sec sec cos 1 1 tan cot cot tan
sin
Example: Find sec θ if cos θ is 6/7
sec
1 6 7
sec
7 6
128
C. Function Values of Special Angles θ sin θ cos θ
1 2
30°
3 2 2 2 1 2
2 2 3 2
45°
60°
D. Common Applications of Right Triangles
y
x
Angle of Elevation
x
Horizontal
Horizontal
Angle of Depression
y
1. 2.
The angle of elevation is the angle made by the ray xy (above horizontal) and the ray with endpoint x as shown in the figure above. The angle of depression is the angle made by ray xy (below horizontal) and the ray with endpoint x as shown in the figure above.
Example: The angle of depression is measured from the top of a 43 ft tower to a reference point on the ground. Its value is found to be 63°. How far is the base of the tower from the point on the ground?
63°
θ
x Solution:
129
43 ft
x 43 43(tan 27) x x 21.91 ft tan 27
θ = 90 – 63 θ = 27
3.
In both air and sea navigation. The clockwise angle from north of the line of sight to a point of reference is called the bearing of the point. There are two common ways to express bearing.
a.
If a single angle is given it is understood that the bearing is measured in a clockwise direction from due north.
33°
b.
135°
The second way of expressing bearing starts with the north-south line and uses an acute angle to show the direction, either east or west, from this line.
33°
30°
N 42° E
S 42° E
E. Circular Functions
y
(0,1)
A(1,0)
r=1
(-1,0)
(1,0)
(0,-1)
130
x
1.
Consider a circle in a coordinate plane whose center is the origin (0, 0) and the radius is 1. This circle is called
2.
the unit circle. The equation governing this circle is x y 1 and every point in the unit circle must satisfy this equation. An arc running counterclockwise from point (1,0) is an arc of positive length while an arc running clockwise from the same point is an arc of negative length. A circular function is defined in terms of the arc length and the coordinates (x,y) in the terminal point of the arc as it moves around the unit circle 2
3.
Domain: R Range: {( x, y ) | 1 r 1}
y ( x 0) x x cot ( y 0) y
sin y 4.
For sine and cosine functions only
1 ( x 0) x 1 csc ( y 0) y
tan
cos x
2
sec
Behavior of Sine and Cosine Functions
Special numbers for sine and cosine functions θ 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
sinθ 0 1 0 -1 0
A(0) (1,0) (0,1) (-1,0) (0,-1) (1,0)
cosθ 1 0 -1 0 1
Signs of Circular Functions Quadrants
sin y
cos x
I II III IV
+ + -
+ +
5.
tan
y x
+ + -
cot + + -
x y
csc
1 y
sec
+ + -
+ +
Conversion of Radians to Degrees and Vice Versa
A rotation of 360° (one revolution) is equal to 2 radians therefore half a revolution is equal to
radians
deg rees 180
Example: Convert
1 x
2 radians to degrees 3 131
radians.
2 3 deg rees 180 2 deg rees 3 180 120 deg rees 6. Arc Length The length s of the arc intercepted on a circle of radius r by a central angle of measure θ radians is given by the product of the radius and the radian measure of angle.
s r Example: A circle has a radius of 19cm. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle measuring
s r 3 s 19 8 57 s centimeters 8 7.
The measure of how fast the position of F is changing is called the linear velocity (v)
y
F B
O
v 8.
s where S is the length of the arc cut by point R at time t t
the measure of how fast angle FOB is changing is called angular velocity (ω)
t
where θ is the measure of angle FOB at time t
132
3 radians. 8
Example: Suppose point F is on a circle with radius of 8cm and ray OF is rotating with an angular velocity of π/10 radians per second. a)
find the angle generated by F in 5 seconds.
t
10 5 2 b) find the distance travelled by F along the circle in 5 seconds
s r
2 s 4 cm s 8
c)
find the linear velocity of F
s t 4 v cm per second 5
v
F. Trigonometric Identities Basic Identities
sin sin cos cos tan tan
Phytagorean Identities
sin 2 cos 2 1 1 tan 2 sec 2 1 cot 2 csc 2
Sum and Difference Identities
cos A B cos A cos B sin A sin B sin A B sin A cos B cos A sin B tan A tan B tan( A B) 1 tan A tan B
Double Angle Identities
Half Angle Identities
sin 2 2 sin cos
sin
1 cos 2 2 1 cos cos 2 2 1 cos tan 2 1 cos
cos 2 cos 2 sin 2 = 1 2 sin
2
133
= 2 cos
2
sin 1 cos 1 cos = sin
1
=
2 tan 1 tan 2 1 cos 2 sin 2 2 1 cos 2 cos 2 2 tan 2
Proving identities: One way of proving identities is to write equivalent expressions on one side of the equation until you arrive at an expression that is identical to the other side of the equation. Another way is by replacing expressions on both sides of the given equation with equivalent expressions until they are indentical. Example: Prove cotθ = cos θcscθ
1 sin
= cos =
cos sin
= cotθ
G. Solving Oblique Triangles Triangles that are not right triangles (oblique triangles) can also be solved using the trigonometric functions 1.
Law of Sines For any triangle ABC in which a,b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite the angles with measures A,B, and C respectively.
a b c sin A sin B sin C Example: Solve triangle ABC, if
A 60 , B 50 and c = 65.
60°
50° 65
C 180 (60 50) 70
134
sin A sin C a c sin 60 sin 70 a 65 65 sin 60 a sin 70 65 sin 60 a sin 70 59.9 a 2.
sin B sin C b c sin 50 sin 70 b 65 65 sin 50 b sin 70 65 sin 50 b sin 70 52.99 b
and
Law of Cosines For any triangle ABC in which a,b, and c are the lengths of the sides opposite the angles with measures A,B, and C respectively.
a 2 b 2 c 2 2bc cos A b 2 a 2 c 2 2ac cos B c 2 a 2 b 2 2ab cos C
Example: Find the length of side c for the given triangle.
B
c
15
C
60°
A 14
c2 c2 c2 c
a 2 b 2 2ab cos C 15 2 14 2 2(14)(15) cos 60 211 14.53units
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
, y sin 1 x or y arcsin x means x sin y , for y in 2 2 135
y cos 1 x or y arccos x means x cos y , for y in 0, , y tan 1 x or y arctan x means x tan y , for y in 2 2
Function
Domain
y sin x
1,1
Range
y cos 1 x
1,1
2 , 2 0,
1
y tan 1 x
,
y cot 1 x y sec 1 x
, ,1 1,
y csc 1 x
,1 1,
Quadrant I and IV
I and II
, 2 2 0, 0, , y 2 2 , 2 , y 0
I and IV
I and II I and II I and IV
Example: 1.
Find y in the following: a.
y sin 1
1 2
1
, whose sine is y is the number in 2 2 2 1 2 1 sin 6 2
sin y
y
6
Since
6
is in the range of the arcsin function we can conclude that y
6
STATISTICS 136
A. Statistics is the study of techniques concerned with the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. Statistics is used to a. Summarize and describe data (descriptive statistics) b. Draw conclusions from the data (inferential statistics) B. If for example, one is to gather data from a survey. All the data collected is referred to as population. When only part of the data is collected it is referred to as sample. C. Random sampling means selecting individuals entirely by chance. A random sample must be taken from many places in the population, the more samples, the better the chances of getting the true picture of the population. D. Fundamental Counting Principle When one event can occur in m different ways and another event can occur in n different ways, then together the events can occur in m*n different ways provided that the second event is not in any way influenced by the first event. Example: How many even numbers of two digits each can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9, if repetition of digit is not allowed? The units place can be filled by 2, 4, 6, and 8. This place can be filled 4 ways. The tens place can be filled 8 ways because repetition is not allowed. Therefore the number of even two digit numbers if repetition is not allowed is: 4 x 8 = 32
E. An arrangement of a group of objects in a definite order is called permutation. The number of Permutations of n distinct elements taken r at a time, denoted
n
Pr
n
Pr is given by the formula:
n! for 0 r n (n r!)
Example: How many different ways can 9 people be seated in a row of 4 chairs?
n! (n r!) 9! 9 P4 (9 4!) n
Pr
= 3024 ways The number of distinguishable permutations P of n elements taken n at a time with r 1 like elements, r2 like elements of another kind, and so on is given by the formula:
P
n! r1!r2 !r2 !... 137
Example: How many permutations can be made using all the letters of the word institution?
P
12! 3!2!2!3!
= 3,326,400 The number of circular permutations of n objects where n is a natural number is (n – 1)! Example: In how many ways can 9 people be seated at a round table? Number of ways = (9 – 1)! = 40,320 F. A group of objects or things, irrespective of their order is called a combination. A combination of n elements of a set taken r at a time, denoted nCr is any r-element subset of the given set.
n
Cr
n! for 0 r n r!(n r )!
Example: In how many ways can a committee of 6 be chosen from 10 people?
10! 6!(10 6)! 10! 10 C 6 6!(4)! 10 9 8 7 10 C 6 (4)! 10 C 6 210 10
C6
G. In sample space that contains equally likely outcomes that can be counted, the probability than an event E will occur, P(E), is the ratio of the number of outcomes in the event to the number of outcomes in the sample space. P(E) =
number of outcomes in the event number of outcomes in the sample space
138
Example: A die is rolled. Find the probability of each event. a. b. c. d.
P(getting 1) = 1/6 P(getting an even number) = 3/6 = ½ P(getting 1,2,3,4,5, or 6) = 6/6 P(getting an 8) = 0/6 = 0
H. A table showing the distribution of measures of the same kind is called a frequency distribution. The frequency distribution can be used to organize date. Example: Construct a frequency distribution for the marks of 15 pupils in an algebra exam. 32 33 34 31 33 35 40 39 37 31 35 30 29 37 36 Interval 39-40 37-38 36-35 34-33 32-31 29-30
I.
Frequency 2 2 3 3 3 2
Measures of Central tendency
In a large population a great number of individuals cluster near the middle of the scale. The concentration of cases near the middle helps us to describe and compare distributions easily. _
a.
Mean is the arithmetic average of the data. It is denoted as x . _
x b. c.
1 n xi where n is the number of values, each xi is an individual value n i 1
Mode is the value of the measure that occurs most frequently. Median is the value of the middle measure when the measures have been arranged in rank order. If there is no middle value, we take the midway between the values of the middle two cases.
Example: Find the mean median and mode for the following quiz scores. 5, 7, 10, 10, 7, 9, 5, 6, 7, 7, 4 _
x
5 7 10 10 7 9 5 6 7 7 4 11
_
x7 First arrange the scores into ascending order. 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 9, 10, 10 The median of the scores is 7
139
The value that occurs most frequently is 7 therefore the mode is 7. J.
Measures of Variation Shows the variability or dispersion of the data. a.
The range of a set of data is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value. It shows the distance of the scattering values away from the middle.
Example: Given a set of scores in a Biology test 99, 95, 78, 61, 54, 87, 75. The highest score is 99 and the lowest score is 54 The range of the set is 99 - 54 = 45 b.
Variance ( ) The greater the variance the more the scores vary from the mean. 2
2
_ 1 n ( xi x) 2 n i 1 _
Each value xi x is called a deviation from the mean
Example: _
Find the variance for the data set 10, 2 , 3, 9, 1 with x =5 _
x- x 5 -3 -2 4 -4
x 10 2 3 9 1 n
_
( x x) 2 25 9 4 16 16
_
( xi x) 2 70 i 1
1 5 2 14
2 (70)
c.
Standard Deviation ( ) The standard deviation is the most frequently used measure of the spread of the set of data. n
(x i 1
_
i
x) 2
n
140
In the preceding example the variance was computed to be 14. To get the standard deviation, we take the square root of the variance which is the 14 . The standard deviation for the preceding example is approximately 3.74. K. When data is distributed in a bell shape or normal curve it is assumed that approximately 68% of the values are within 1 standard deviation of the mean, approximately 95% are within 2 standard deviations of the mean and about 99.8% are within 3 standard deviations of the mean. L. A z – score is the number of standard deviations the value is from the mean. The sign of the z – score tells its direction from the mean. _
z
xx
Example: _
What is the z-score for 90 when x = 60 and
=3
_
z
xx
90 60 z 3 z 10
90 is 10 standard deviations above the mean. Practice Test Multiple Choices: 1. What is the average of A, B, C? a. ABC/3 c. 3(A+B+C)/.3 b. (A+B+C)/3 d. ABC/A+B+C 2. Which of the following has the LEAST Numerical value? a. 11/12 b. 6/8 c. 5/7 d. ¾ 3. If 2 apples cost P25.00, how many apples can be purchased for P100.00? a. 8 apples b. ½ dozen
c. 2 dozens d. 1 ½ dozens
4. If 2 tablespoons= 1 liquid oz., and 5 tablespoons = ¼ cup, then, how many liquid ounces are there in one cup? a. 4 ounces c. 16 ounces b. 10 ounces d. 24 ounces 5. 2 is what percent of 5? 141
a. 25%
b. 38%
c. 40%
d. 35%
6. Five (5) average office workers earn a total average monthly salary of P10, 000. If the average monthly salaries of two of these workers total P 4,000, what is the average monthly income of each of the remaining three workers? a. P 6,000.00 c. P 2,500.00 b. P 2,000.00 d. P 4,000.00 7. Which of the following equation has the LEAST value? a. 6+3x4 c. 6+4x3 b. 6x4+3 d. 6x3+4 8. 3.54 is multiplied by 10 to the fifth power, what would be the value? a. 3.054 c. 305.40 b. 30.54 d. 354,000 9. If the short hand of the clock is at 4, what is the degree of its’ angle? a. 90 b. 120 c. 130 d. 150 10. There are two numbers whose sum is 48. One of the numbers is greater by 6. What are the numbers? a. 23,24 b. 21,27 c. 22,26 d. 23,26 11. Add: 17 5/8 + 21 ¾ =? a. 38 3/8 b. 39 3/8
c. 39 4/8 d. 38 4/8
12. My uncle’s weight is two times that my nephew. My aunt’s weight is half that of my nephew. What is the total weight of the three? Which of the following formulae will apply for the correct answer? a. x3+2 1/2 c. (2x) + (x) + (1/2x) b. ½ + 3x d. 2x + 1/2x2 13. 2 3/4 of P100 is equal to a. 6/4 x 100 c. 11/4 + 100 b. 11/4 x 100 d. 6/4 +100 14. Which of the following fraction is > than 1/3? a. 22/63 c. 4/11 b. 15/46 d. 33/98 15. In 1 ½ hours, the minute hand of a clock rotates through an angle of how many degrees? a. 60 b. 90 c. 180 d. 540 16. When the fraction 2/3, 5/7, 8/11 and 9/13 are arranged in an ascending order, the result would be? a. 8/11, 5/7, 9/13, 2/3 c. 2/3, 8/11, 5/7, 9/13 b. 5/7, 8/11, 2/3, 9/13 d. 2/3, 9/13, 5/7, 8/11 17. ADD: 48.63+96.28+436.45+.2385 = ? a. 581.60 c. 581.5990 b. 581.5985 d. 581.5986 18. 15 is 20% of what number? 142
a. 75
b. 78
c. 80
19. 7 is 5 percent of what number? a. 120 b. 125 c. 145
d. 70
d. 140
20. The ratio of two numbers 5: 3 and their differences is 20. What are the numbers? a. 50, 30 b. 55, 35 c. 40,60 d. 45, 65 21. The ratio of two numbers is 16: 33. The larger number is 264. What is the smaller number? a. 131 b. 130 c. 129 d. 128 22. ¾ of 100 is equal to 5 times what number? a. 10 b. 75 c. 25 d. 15 23. What is the smallest positive number which, when it is divided by 3, 4 or 5, will leave a remainder of 2? a. 42 b. 22 c. 62 d. 122 24. Which of the following number has the largest numerical value? a. ( 3+3+3) to 3rd power c. ( 4x3x3) to 2nd power rd b. ( 3x3) to 3 power d. 3 cube + 3 square 25. Eight percent of 36 is 72% of what number? a. 2.06 b. 2.88 c. 3.24 d. 4 26. Which of the following has the greatest value? a. 6/10 b. 8/12 c. 17/24 d. 7/9 27. If 25% of 50% of 80 is 10, then ¼ of 5/10 of 80 is a. 40 b. 20 c. 15 d. 10 28. What number is 35 more than 70? a. 105 b. 135 c. 170
d. 185
29. The number is 15 less 7; when added to ten, what will the number be? a. 28 b. 18 c. 17 d. 15 30. What is -2 + (-3.1) + (-.02)? a. -.512 b. 5.012 c. 0.512
d. -5.12
31. What part of an hour elapses between 11:50 am and 12:14 pm ? a. 2/5 b. 7/30 c. 17/30 d. 16 32. A motion was passed by a vote of 6 is to 4. What parts of votes cast were in favor of the motion? a. 6/10
b. 6/4
c. 4/6
d. 4/10
33. If three miles is equivalent to 4.83 kilometers, then 11.27 kms is equivalent to how many miles? a. 2 1/3 b. 7 1/3 c. 5 d. 7 34. Ever good Systems employ 115 people. During the low season, it laid off 20% of its employees. By what percent must the company increase its’ manpower to return to full capacity? a. 20 b. 22 c. 23 d. 25 143
35. Golen Bell Books offer 2004 World Almanac marked at P2, 450.00 less discount of 10% and 5 %. Another bookstore offers the same book but with a single discount of 15%. How much does the buyer save by buying at the best price? a. P12.25 c. P 12.00 b. P 12.50 d. P10.50 36. Lulu travels a distance of 20 kilometers at 60 kms. per hour (kph) and then returns over the same route at 40 kph. What is his average rate for the round trip in kms. per hour? a. 50kms b. 48 kph c. 47 kph d. 46 kph 37. Mr. Milby took his four children to the trade exhibit. The total cost of their admission tickets was P 135.00 Mr. and Mrs. Alonzo and their six children had to pay P 220.00. What was the cost of an adult ticket and that of a child’s ticket? a. P 35.0 & P 25.00 c. P 24.00 & P 35.00 b. P 25.00 & P 35.00 d. P35.00 & P 28.00 38. Cass and uma both have part time jobs. Last week, Cass worked 8 hours and Uma, 5 hours and both of them earned a total of P800.00. This week, Uma worked 12 hours and Cass, 4 hours and they earned a total of P1, 250.00. How much is Cass’s hourly rate? a. P 48.00 b.P49.50 c. P 44.08 d. P44.50 39. What is Uma hourly rate? a. P89.90 b. P89.00 c. P88.75
d. P 89.47
40. If X is located on line segment AB and point Y is located on line segment CD, If AB = CD and AX >CY, then : a. XB > YD c. XB > YD b. AX > XB d. AX > XB 41. If W > X, Y< Z and X > Z, then which of the following equation must be true? a. W >X >Y> Z c. X >Z >Y >W b. W> X >Z >Y d. Z < Y < X < W 42. The number of degrees through which the hour hand of a clock moves in two hours and 12 minutes is? a. 66 degrees c. 126 degrees b. 72 degrees d. 732 degrees 43. Emang is 15 years old. Veronica is one-third older. How many years ago was Veronica twice as old as Emang. a. 3 b. 5 c. 7.5 d. 10 44. A train running between Calamba and Magallanes arrives at its destination 10 minutes late when it goes at 40 kms. per hour. And 16 minutes late when it goes at 30 kms. per hour. What is the difference between the two towns? a. 25 kms. b. 12 kms. c. 75 kms. d. 80 kms. 45. Jake is 67 years old. His son Jay is 29 years old. In how many years will Jay be exactly half his father’s age? a. 6 b. 7 c. 8 d. 9 144
PROBLEM SOLVING : 46. Jamie bought 55 copies of phil. History and paid a total of P 3,850.00. If she buys 3 copies more of the same book, how much will she pay in all? a. P4,060 b. P4,260 c. P4,160 d. P4,150 47. A manufacture finds that 150 pieces of pens are defective and unsuitable for sale. If the defective pens are equivalent to three percent of the production, how many pens are being produced? a. 5100 b. 4990 c. 5000 d. 5150 48. Trisha is paid P 380.00 per hour for the 1st hrs. She works in a day. For every hour thereafter, she is paid P 475.00 per hour. If she works 4 more hours’ day for 3 days in a week, how much does she earn per week? a. P2,1000 b. P2,0900 c. P2,0950 d. P2,9990 49. Maxine owns 40% of the stock in Millennium Traders, Inc. Justine owns 15,000 shares. Aleah owns all the shares not owned by Maxine or Justine. How many shares does Maxine own if Aleah has 25 % more shares than Maxine? a. 45,000 shares c. 60,000 shares b. 50,000 shares d. 75,000 shares c. 50. What would Aleah’ total number of shares in Millennium Traders Inc? a. 75,500 c. 75,050 b. 75,600 d. 75,000 51. Two trains start from the same station at the time but travel in opposite directions. Their rate is 45 miles per hour and 65 miles per hour respectively. After how many hours will the train be 640 miles apart? a. 4 hrs. 40 mins c. 6 hrs b. 5 hrs 48 mins d. 4 ½ hrs 52. C is the midpoint of line segment AE, B and D are in the line AE so that AB = BC and CD = DE. What percent of AC is AD? a. 33 % b. 50 % c. 133 % d. 150 % 53. Admission tickets to a college play cost P20 for students and P 50 for non-students. If 550 tickets were sold and total receipts amounted to P 15,500. How many tickets of each type were sold? a. 160 & 390 c.150 & 400 b. 100 & 450 d.170 & 380 54. Mang Jose, a gardener, can mow a lawn in 3 hrs. After 2 hrs., it rained and he stopped mowing the lawn, in the afternoon, Aling Tina, completed the rest of the work in one hour and 30 minutes. How long would it take Aling Tina to mow the lawn by herself? a. 2 hr. and 30 mins. c. 1 hr. and 45 mins. b. 1 hr. and 22 mins. d. 2 hr. and 22 mins. 55. A couple wants to have only four children so spaced that the first is older than the second by 2 years, the second older than the third by three years, the third older than the fourth by 4 years. If their plan is realized, how old will the eldest child be when the youngest is nine years old? a. 18 yrs. Old c. 17 yrs. old b. 16 yrs. Old d.15 yrs. Old 145
56. Write 3.4 % as a fraction. a. 3.4 / 100 b. 3.4 / 1000
c. .34 / 100 d. .34 / 1000
57. Write ¾ % as a decimal. a. .75 b. .075
c. .0075 d. .00075
58. The number missing in the series 6, 12, 20, 30, ? , 56, 72 is ? a. 38 b. 42 c. 44 d. 48 \ 59. If the following numbers are arranged in order from smallest to the largest, what will be the correct order? * 9 /13 * 13/9 * 70% * 1/.70 a. Bacd c. Cdab b. Cbad d. Acdb 60. 3 is 6 % of a certain number. What is the number? a. 53 b. 50 c. 48 d. 18 61. What is the average of 0.6, 6.6, 0.4, and 2.4? a. 1 b. 10 c. 2 ½ d. 2 62. What is the sum of √12 + √27? a. √29 b. 5√3 c. 3√5
d. 13√ 3
63. Find 65% of 75. a. 4.87 b. 488c. 48.75 d. 487.50 64. P25.00 is 20% of what? a. P 1,250 b. P 125.00
c. P 128.50 d. P 120.00
65. 12 is 125% of what number? a. 9.6 b. 8 c. 9 66. What percent of 16 is 40? a. 2.5 % b. 2500 %
d. 10
c. ¼ d. 250%
67. 1 ¼ subtracted from its reciprocal is? a. -9/20 c. 25 b. .45 d. 9/20 68. What is the ratio of ¼ to 3/5? a. 1:3 b. 3:20 c. 5:12
d. 3:4
69. What is the difference between √150 and √54? a. 3√6 b.16√6 c. 6√2 d. 2√6 146
70. One tenth is what part of three-fourths? a. 3/40 b. 1/8 c. 2/15 d. 15/2 71. How many 1/8’s are there in 2 5/8? a. 21 b. 22 c. 23
d. 24
72. A blue neon light blinks every 4 seconds. A red one blinks every 5 seconds, while a green one blinks every 6 seconds. How many times will they blink together in one hour? a. once b. 10 times c. 20 d. 60 73. Which of the following is divisible by 3, but not by 9? a. 11,070 c. 45,072 b. 20,103 d. 19,386 74. The distance between two towns on a given map is 2 ¾ cm. If 1/2cm represents 6 km. What is he distance between the two towns? a. 18 km c. 36 km b. 33 km d. 42 km 75. Margo paid P400 for a blouse. If the blouse was sold at 20% discount, what was its original price? a. P 80 b. P 480 c. P 500 d. P 540 76. Julius drove 193.5 kilometers did he travels in one hour? How long it will take him to travel 150.5 kilometers more? a. 43 km & 3.5 hrs. c. 40 km & 7.3 hrs. b. 54 km & 4 hrs. d. 42 km & 4 hrs. 77. Mr. Perez earned P27, 895 from mango plantation. He also earned 352,168 from his poultry farm. How much did he earn in all? a. P 379,953 c. P 379,963 b. P 380,063 d. P 479,063 78. Christine bought 8 kilos margarine. She used 2 1/3 kilos for baking cake and 1 ½ kilos for spaghetti. How many kilos of margarine were left? a. 5 5/5 kilos c. 5 1/6 kilos b. 4 1/6 kilos d. 3 5/6 kilos 79. Mrs. Salas bought 6 meters of wire for P20. How much will 9 meters of wire cost? a. P 15 b. P 20 c. P 25 d. P 30 80. Belen deposited P4, 000 in a bank with an interest of 7 ½% per Annum. How much is the interest of her money after one year? a. P 100 c. P 1000 b. P 300 d. P 3000 81. There are 40 pupils with only 20 textbooks in the science class of Mrs. Dela Cruz. What is the pupil textbooks ratio? a. 1:2 b. 2:1 c. 2:3 d. 20:40
147
82. On test 25 questions, Uma made 4 mistakes. What percent id he answer correctly? a. 80% b. 84% c. 85% d. 82% 83. Mrs. Ponti borrowed P1, 500 at 10% interest per annum for 6 months. How much did she pay back? a. P 1,525 c. P 1,575 b. P 1,500 d. P 1,595 84. Which polygon has four equal sides? a. Rhombus c. Scalene b. Equilateral d. Isosceles 85. Which two numbers total the sum of 72 the difference being 12? a. 32 and 40 c. 41 and 31 b. 30 and 42 d. 24 and 48 86. The ratio of the number of boys to the number of girls in a class is 2:3. If here are 40 students in the class. How many boys are there? a. 8 b. 16 c. 18 d. 24 87. Mrs. Paredez paid P94.50 for 3 ½ dozen of eggs. How much would two dozen of such eggs cost? a. 50.50 b. 54.00 c. 55.00 d. 56.00 88. Mark divides his day into leisure, sleep, and work in the ratio 1:2:3. How many hours does he spend work. a. 4 hr b. 8 hr c. 10 hr d. 12 hr 89. It takes 20 men to build a house or 60 days. How many men will be needed to build in 15 days? a. 5 b. 80 c. 100 d. 120 90. Which of these is a correct proportion? a. 3:5 = 5:10 c. 1 ½ :2 = 5:7 b. 7:10 = 15:18 d. 4:9 = 2:41/2 91. The area of rectangle is 17 cm2. Find its perimeter if its length is 13 cm a. 9 cm b. 30 cm c. 44 cm d. 54 cm 92. What is the sum of the first five prime numbers? a. 11 b. 18 c. 26 d. 28 93. In a sequence of start and stops an elevator travels from the first floor to the fifth floor and then to the second floor. From there, the elevator travels to the fourth and then to the third floor. If the floors are 3 meters apart how far has the elevator traveled? a. 18 m b. 27 m c. 30 m d. 45 m 94. 14.3 is equal to a. 0.143 x 100 b. 14.3 x 100
c. 143 100 d. 0.143 x 1000
95. Which of the following has the greatest value? a. 0.351 b. 35/100 c. 3/10 d. 3/9
148
96. Which of the following numbers is greater than -3/2? a. -4/3 b. -3 c. -7/4 d. -2 97. Simplify 1/3+2/5-2/6 a. 1/14 b. 1/5
c. 2/3d. 2/5
98. Find the product of (2 ½) (5/7) (2/5) a. 0 b. 5/44 c. 1
d. 5/7
99. Simplify [2(-3)2 –(-4)(-5) -2] a. -4
b. 14
c. 28
d. 10
LET Reviewer- Science
Lecture Notes
General Science Definitions of Science An organized body of knowledge gathered over a long period of time to explain the world we live in. Knowledge or a system covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method. Scientific Method 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Identifying the problem (Questioning) Gathering Preliminary data Formulating a hypothesis* Testing of the hypothesis Analysis and Interpretation of data Drawing of Conclusion
Independent Variable – variable changed by the experimenter Dependent Variable – variable that responds to the variable that is changed in the experiment. Experimental group – groups that receive treatment. Control group – opposite of Experimental. 149
hypothesis – it is what we think the answer to the question is and it should stated in terms of the variables defined. Laws and Theories *Scientific law – a description of a natural occurrence that has been observed many times. *Scientific theory – a reasonable explanation of a scientific law. It is derived from a hypothesis that has been supported by repeated testing. *Model – helps visualize occurrences and objects that cannot be observed directly. Note: Scientific laws and theories cannot be proven absolutely. They are maintained as all observations support them. Measurements In science, the metric system is used in all measurements for its convenience and simplicity. The International System of Units (SI) uses the seven base quantities and units given below:
Physical Quantity
Unit Name (symbol)
Mass
Kilogram, kg
Length
Meter, m
Time
Second, s
Amount of Substance
Mole, mol
Temperature
Kelvin, K
Electric current
Ampere, A
Luminous intensity
Candela, cd
A. Reading Metric Measurements No. of significant digits = no. of certain digits + one certain digit (0 or 5) Example 1: The diagram below is a metric ruler used to measure the length of a pencil. How long is the pencil?
8 cm
9
10
150
The smallest fraction of a centimeter in the metric ruler is 0.1 cm. This corresponds to the last certain digit in any measurement. The pointer reads 9.0 cm. One uncertain digit should be added. In this case it is 0. Answer: Length of pencil = 9.00 cm B. Converting Metric Units Conversion of metric units is easily performed, Mega
106
Decimal point moves to the left
3
Kilo
10
Deka
102
Hector
101
Base unit
100
Deci
10-1
Centi
10-2
Milli
10-3
Micro
10-6
Decimal point moves to the right
Example 2: How many grams are there in 37.d centigrams? To convert 37.5 cg to grams, count the number of steps from centi to base unit. Since it moves upward, the movement of the decimal point is to the left. Answer: 0.375 g Major Regions of the Earth 1. Lithosphere – the solid part and the largest portion of the earth 2. Hydrosphere – the liquid part. It covers about 71% of the earth’s surface 3. Atmosphere – the gaseous portion that envelops the earth 4. Biosphere – the region where living things are found. Rocks and Minerals 151
Everywhere you look, you find rocks of different shapes and sizes. What is important to remember about rocks is the way they were formed. The varying conditions for the rock formation influence the characteristics that each rock develops, Igneous rocks – formed from hardened magma and lava. e.g. Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt, etc. Sedimentary rocks – form from deposited fragments or particles of other rocks that have been weathered and eroded. e.g. limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, shale Metamorphic rocks – rocks that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure e.g. marble (from limestone), slate(from shale) * Rocks are made up of minerals which are either elements or compounds. Weathering is a term for all processes which combine to cause the disintegration and chemical alteration of rocks at or near earth surface. Erosion includes all the process of loosening, removal, and transportation which tend to wear away the earth’s surface. Lithification is the conversion of unconsolidated sediment into solid rock. Weather and Climate Meteorology – the study of the earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate Weather – the daily condition of the earth’s atmosphere Climate – general conditions of temperature and precipitation in a large area over a long period of time. Gases found in the atmosphere: a. Nitrogen – about 78% - nitrogen in air reacts with chemicals to produce nitrates, which are used by living things for the manufacture of proteins - is returned to the atmosphere by the process of decay b. Oxygen – 21% -used for respiration -for combustion processes c. Other gases – (water vapor, CO2, O3) Layers in the atmosphere 1. Troposphere – layer where life exists - where different weather conditions prevail - has lowest temperature 2. Stratosphere – contains ozone that serves as a protective shield against UV rays. 152
- where jetstream is found 3. Mesosphere – layer where meteoroids that enter the earth’s atmosphere are burned. 4. Ionosphere – contains ions that are used for radio communications 5. Exosphere – orbit space for artificial satellites. The uneven temperature and pressure in the atmosphere result in the movement of air called winds. Monsoons are examples of winds that result from the differences in the absorption and reflection of thermal energy by different materials of Earth. Ecology 1. Ecology – the study of how living things interact with their environment. 2. Ecological Factors a. biotic – all living factors in the environment b. abiotic – nonliving factors that are essential to living organisms 3. Population – a group of the same species living together 4. Community – all the different populations living together 5. Ecosystem – community of different living things interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment 6. Biomes – a large area whose ecological communities are determined by its climate. Solar System The probable origin of our solar system, specifically the sun, is similar to that of other stars. The age of a star is related to its temperature and its color. Bluish and white stars are the hottest and youngest stars. The least hot and the oldest star are the reddish stars. Nebular theory – states that the solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud composed of hydrogen, helium and some heavier elements. Ptolemaic Theory – The earth is stationary; each planet and the sun revolved around the earth. Copernican Theory – This theory considers the sun as the center of the solar system. The earth and other planets revolve around the sun in a circular orbit. Planets -
Mercury- Rocky, cratered surface; extremely thin atmosphere Venus-Thick cloud cover; green house effect Earth-liquid water, life Mars-polar ice caps, pink sky, dominant volcanoes Jupiter-Great red spots, thin ring; huge magnetosphere Saturn-many rings and ringlets, Titan only moon with substantial atmosphere Uranus-Rotates on side; worldwide ocean of superheated water Neptune- Unusual satellite rotation, 4 rings, great dark spot. Asteroids - are objects that orbit the sun like planets. However they are smaller than the planets and so they are sometimes called minor planet. Meteoroids – are objects smaller than the asteroids that revolve around the sun.
153
Comet - is a mass of frozen materials such as water, methane and ammonia along with the bits of rock and dust. Solar eclipse – when the sun, the moon and the earth are in straight line. During solar eclipse, the sun can’t be seen from earth because the moon covers it. Lunar eclipse – same as solar but in this case the sun covers the moon.
154
Biology Biology – the branch of science that deals with the study of living systems and life processes. A. Cells This is probably the most basic term that you would need to know. All living systems are composed of cells. They are the basic unit of structure and fuction in living things. Following is an illustration and concept map of a cell and the different structures contained in it. Cell wall/cell membrane
mitochondrion Except for the
chloroplast
Cell
nucleus Except for the
ribosome Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus
cytoplasm lysosome
protoplasm
centriole Microtubules and microfilaments
Organelles are structures with specific functions found within living cells. Nucleus – This organelle is arguably the most important structure in the cell because it serves as the control center in which individual functions of the other organelles are coordinated. Cell wall/cell membrane – the cell wall in plant cells and in some monerans and protests provides rigidity for support to the cells and a characteristic shape for functionality and structure. The cell membrane on the other hand is selectively permeable. Mitochondrion – this organelle is also called as “powerhouse of the cell”. It serves as the site where ATPs are abundantly synthesized. Chloroplast – this serves as the site of photosynthesis among plants and photosynthetic algae. Ribosome – this serves as the site of protein synthesis. Endoplasmic Reticulum – These organelles serve as channels or passageways through which materials are transported to the different parts of the cell. Centriole – this serves for cytokinetic purposes and is very common among dividing cells 155
Lysosome – the structure is also called “suicidal bag” as it releases digestive juices Golgi apparatus – this serves for selection and packaging of cellular materials. Differences between plant and animal cells Structure
Plants
Animals
1. cell wall
Present
Absent
2. chloroplast
Present
Absent
3. centriole
Absent
Present
4. lysosome
Absent
Present
One/large
Many/small
5. vacuole
How did the concept of the cell come about? The Cell Theory serves as the basis on which everything that we know about the cell is anchored. There are three elements to this theory; 1. All living things are made up of cells. 2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living systems. 3. All cells come from preexisting cells. Like any biological structure, the cell is composed of biomolecules that are intricately combined to enable the cell to perform its metabolic functions. a. Carbohydrates – immediate source of energy - elemental composition: C, H, O - building blocks: monosaccahrides - e.g. sucrose (table sugar), maltose, amylase b. Fats/Lipids – these molecules serve as another source of energy after carbohydrates - elemental composition: C, H, O - building blocks: fatty acids and a glycerol backbone - e.g. waxes, oils, and cholesterol c. Proteins – these molecules serve as sources of building materials. - elemental composition: C, H, O, N, S - building blocks: amino acids - e.g. amylase, actin and myosin d. Nucleic Acids – these molecules include the RNA’s and the DNA’s - elemental composition: C, H, O, N, P - building blocks: nucleotides
156
Cells according to complexity Prokaryotic cells – have no membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of bacteria and bluegreen algae Eukaryotic cells – have membrane-bound nucleus and organelles; typical of protests, fungi, plants, and animals.
Cell Transport Passive Transport – does not require the expenditure of energy; moves particles through the concentration gradient. Active transport – requires the expenditure of energy; moves particles against the concentration gradient. Diffusion - this refers to the process in which molecules of solvent move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Osmosis – this refers to the diffusion of particles or molecules across selectively permeable membrane. Cell Reproduction This refers to the process by which cells divide to produce daughter cells. It involves either mitosis if somatic or body cells are involves or meiosis if germ or sex cells are involved. Mitosis - refers to the division of the somatic cells -
also referred to as equational dvision because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is equal to the ploidy number of the dividing cell. Meiosis - refers to the division of germ cells - also referred to as reductional division because the ploidy number of the daughter cells is only half that of the parent cell B. Botany Plants are autotrophic organisms capable of synthesizing their own food for growth and maintenance through the process of photosynthesis. Their cells are eukaryotic (i.e. with a distinct nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles) like fungal and animal cells, but are distinguished by the presence of cellulosic cell walls, plastids and large vacuoles. Plant cells may also contain non-living inclusions called ergastic substances that are products of the cell’s metabolism, like crystals and starch. Major plant cell types: Three major plant cell types, parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, make up the different tissues of the plant. Although they assume various shapes, they are most easily distinguished by general features and location in plant body. o
Parenchyma cells are usually large, thin-walled and are extremely variable in shape. 157
o o
Collenchyma cells have primary cell walls that are thickened irregularly by cellulose and pectin materials. Sclerenchyma cells have a comparatively thick primary cell wall bearing heavy depositions of lignified secondary substance laid down in a laminated pattern.
Tissues are aggregate of cells with similar structure and function. Some of the cells in the tissue may even undergo further cell modification and change in function. Thus it is difficult to classify plant tissues on the basis of a single criterion like function, origin or structure.
o
Meristematic tissues are composed of immature cells and regions of active cell division. They provide for growth and are found in the root tip. o Permanent tissues a. Epidermis –composed of tiny openings principally on the underside of the leaves that regulate the exchange of water and gases called stomates. b. Periderm – constitute the corky outer bark of trees. c. Vascular tissues – composed of xylem and phloem; xylem functions for the transport of water and minerals upward from the roots while phloem functions for the transport of food materials. Different Plant Parts Root It is typically underground organ of the plant axis that functions principally for anchorage and absorption of water and minerals from the soil. The first formed root is the primary root. It develops from the radicle of the seed embryo. Some root arises from other plant organs like stems and leaves hence are described as adventitious. There are two general types of root system, the fibrous which is found in monocotyledons, and the taproot, characteristic of dicotyledons. Stem The stem is readily recognized by the presence of nodes. Leaves are born on these nodes. The intervening area between the two nodes is an internode. Leaf It is a flattened, green, lateral appendage that carries out the functions of photosynthesis and transpiration. Chlorophyll gives the leaf its green color. Flower It is a modified branch representing the reproductive structure of an angiosperm. It is generally divided into four parts: the green sepals, brightly colored petals, the male structure stamen, and the female structure known as pistil (carpel). Each of these has a collective term, respectively, the calyx, corolla, andorecium and gymnoecium. Fruit The fruit is the ripened ovary with functions to protect and disperse the seeds. It is the product of the entire pistil and other floral parts that may be associated with it. Two processes precede fruit development; 158
pollination or the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma and fertilization or the fusion of a sperm nucleus and an egg cell. Photosynthesis and Transpiration Photosynthesis and transpiration are physiological processes occurring in leaves. Photosynthesis involves the trapping of the radiant energy and its conversion into chemical energy. It takes place in the chloroplast of the leaves. Transpiration is the loss of water in vapor form through the stomates, minute openings distributed on the surface of leaves. A stoma has a pair of epidermal cells called guard cells. Water moving into the guard cells cause latter to be turgid thereby opening the stomal pore. When the water moves out of the guard cells, these become flaccid and the stomal pore closes. The numerous stomates of a leaf serve as entry point for a carbon dioxide (photosynthesis) and the exit for water vapor (transpiration). If transpiration proceeds at a rate much faster that that of the roots could absorb water from the soil, the plant tissues suffer from water deficit, causes plant to wilt. General Equation: Photosynthesis: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
C6H12O12 + 6 O2
Respiration C6H12O12 + 6 O2
6 CO2 + 6 H2O
- it is a complex process by which energy in the form of ATP is released from food molecules ingested by organisms. Plant Taxonomy It is the science of classification, nomenclature and identification of plats. It is the most basic and a unifying field of botany. Classification is the arrangement of plants into categories that have similar characteristics. These categories called taxa are arranged into hierarchy to form a classification system. The smallest taxonomic unit is the species. Similar species form a genus and elated genera, a family. The most inclusive category, the kingdom comprises all plants. Nomenclature is the orderly assignment of names to taxa or categories in accordance with the rules of International code of botanical nomenclature. A plant’s scientific name is a binomial, that is, it is composed of a generic name (genus) and a specific epithet. The name of the person who proposed the binomial completes the scientific name (Oryza sativa L.) C. Genetics Genetics is the study of heredity and variation. Heredity is the transmission of traits from generation to generation while variation deals with genetic differences between organisms. The process mainly involved in heredity and variation is cell division.
159
The cells in all organisms grow and reproduce by cell division. A unicellular bacterium, after doubling in size, can reproduce by dividing into two cells. In multicellular organisms like man, increase in size is attained by dividing its constituent cells. Gene Segregation and Interaction Dominant Allele - alternative trait that is expressed in the phenotype. Recessive Allele – alternative trait whose expression is marked in the phenotype.
Law of Dominance – state that only dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype and that recessive alleles are masked among hybrids but are manifested among pure breeds. Law of Co-dominance – states that two equally dominant alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype and that no blending is achieved. Law of Incomplete Dominance – states that among multi-allelic traits, two dominant alleles that are not dominant enough to mask the expression of one another, are incompletely expressed in the phenotype, hence a blended trait is achieved. Mendel’s law may be separated into two rules: first, the law of Independent Segregation of Alleles and second, the Law of Independent Assortment. *Law of Independent Segregation states that the alleles in a gene pair separate cleanly from each other during meiosis. *Law of Independent Assortment states that the alleles of the different genes separate cleanly from each other and randomly combining during meiosis. These laws can be illustrated using monohybrid and dihybrid cross: a. Monohybrid Cross One of the pairs of alternative characters in sweet peas studied by Mendel waqs round vs wrinkled seed. These distinctive characters or traits are called phenotype while the gene or genetic content coding for these traits is the genotype. In example below, both parents are homozygous so that the round (P1) and wrinkled (P2) parents have the RR and rr genotypes, respectively. The gametes produced after meiosis by P1 is R and by P2 is r so the progeny of the first filial generation (F1) have heterozygous (Rr) genotypes. Since R is dominant over r, then the F1’s have round phenotype. This is an example of complete dominance. R masks the expression of r. This is the dominant allele. The allele that is masked ( r ) is the recessive. Female Parent (P1) Phenotype:
Round
Genotype
RR
Male Parent (P2) Wrinkled rr
160
Gametes
R
r
Fertilization
F1 genotype: Phenotype;
Rr Round
To demonstrate that the F1’s are heterozygous, a testcross can be conducted wherein the F1 plants are crossed to the homozygous recessive parents (rr). The recessive parent contributes the gametes ( r ) while the other parent contributes R and r. Testcross results in 1 Rr (round): 1 rr (wrinkled) or 1:1 segregation ratio. Rr
x
rr
Gametes
r
R
Rr (round)
r
rr (wrinkled)
Genotypic Ratio:
1Rr
:
1rr
Phenotypic Ratio:
1round : 1 wrinkled
b. Dihybrid Cross The members of gene pairs located on different homologous chromosome segregate independently of each other during meiosis. Mendel studied two phenotypes, texture and color of seeds with two alternative traits; round and yellow seeds vs. wrinkled and green seeds. He crossed pure breeding round, yellow seeded plants with pure breeding wrinkled, green seeded plants. The F1 progenies were all yellow round seeded plants. The F2’s gave 315 round, yellow: 101 wrinkled yellow; 108 round, green and 32 wrinkled, green plants. Approximately 9:3:3:1. The method used in getting the genotypic ratio among F2 progeny is called Punnett Square or Checkerboard method. Molecular Basis of Heredity 161
The first part dealt with the physical basis of heredity – the chromosomes. Chromosomes are the carriers of the multitude of genes. Genes or hereditary units, on the other hand, are actually fragments or portions of the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. A chromosome is made up of one very long DNA packaged with histones to fit inside a minute nucleus of the cell. Eukaryotic cells with several chromosomes would, therefore, contain more than one molecule of DNA. Prokaryotic cells and viruses generally possess one long molecule of DNA either naked or associated with proteins but not as organized as compared to eukaryotic chromosomes. The DNA has been tagged as the genetic material of all organisms with the exception of some viruses with ribonucleic acid or RNA as their genetic material.
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology DNA as the genetic material is capable of transmitting biological information from a parent cell to its daughter cells and, in a broader perspective, from one generation to another. The information stored in its base sequence is copied accurately by replication. Replication is a process of faithfully copying a DNA to produce two DNA molecules identical to the parent DNA. These DNA molecules are then passed on to the daughter cells via the chromosomes during cell division. The information stored in the DNA when expressed will result to a particular trait of an individual. The trait is expressed through the action of proteins either directly or indirectly. The central dogma of molecular biology consists of three general processes namely: replication (DNA synthesis), transcription (RNA synthesis) and translation (protein synthesis). The transfer of information from cell to cell or from generation to generation is achieved by replication. On the other hand, the transfers of information from the DNA to the proteins involve two processes: transcription and translation. Generally, all organisms follow this mode of transfer except for some viruses that undergo reverse transcription.
Transcription
DNA
Translation
RNA
Reverse Transcription Mutation – changes in the genetic materials that are essentially heritable. a. Deletion – refers to a segment of base pairs in the DNA that is spliced off. 162
PROTEIN
b. Substitution – refers to a segment of the base pairs in the DNA that is replaced by a different series of base pairs. C. Translocation – refers to segments of base pairs that are differently positioned. d. insertion – refers to base pairs that are added to segment of DNA. Evolution – this process refers to the gradual change in populations through time. D. Animal Development (30 minutes) Animal Cells, Tissues and Tissue Organization Animal tissues are generally classified into four categories: Epithelium, Connective Tissue, Muscle and Nerve. These animal tissues make up all the organ systems of the body. o
Epithelium, in its simplest form, is composed of a single continuous layer of cells of the same type covering an external or internal surface.
o
Connective Tissue, has the widest range encompassing the vascular tissue(blood and lymph), CT proper, cartilage and bone. o Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells organized in long units of structures called muscle fibers or muscle cells. The two general categories of muscle, smooth and striated. Striated or skeletal muscle functions for voluntary control while smooth muscle functions for involuntary contractions. o The nerve cells or neurons comprising the nervous tissue each possess a cell body which contains the nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm. The process come in contact with other nerve cells, or with other effector cells through a point of contact called synapse. Animal Development Animal development is a series of events that is controlled by the genetic information in the nucleus and factors in the cytoplasm. It starts with fertilization and ends into the arrangement of cells which gives the embryo its distinct form. Features which are unique to organism such as the shape of the face, location and number of limbs and arrangement of brain parts are molded by cell movements in response to the action of genes in the nucleus and molecules in the cytoplasm. Stages of Development a. Gametogenesis Each species has its own chromosome number. Somatic cells of humans have 23 pars of chromosomes (22 pair somatic and one pair sex; one chromosome of each pair is originally derived from the father and the other from the mother. The chromosomal pair comes in contact with each other and exchange segments during meiosis. This phenomenon provides combinations of parental traits hence there is more viability in the characters of the offspring. Gametogenesis changes the diploid cells into haploid sperms and ova. Cells undergo meiosis, a sequence of two divisions during which the chromosomes divide only once. The resulting cells have only half the number of the chromosomes of the parent cells. This process prevents doubling of the chromosomes during fertilization. 163
The male germ cells, initially round and large, are changed into slender and flagellated cells. The cytoplasm is practically lost and mature cells develop a head, neck and tail. The female germ cells gradually increase in size as a result of growth. b. Fertilization The ovum and the sperm unite thus restoring the diploid chromosome number of the species. In humans, each gamete has 23 chromosomes (haploid). Upon fertilization the zygote acquires 46 chromosomes. At this stage of development, the genetic sex of the individual is established. c. Cleavage The unicellular zygote undergoes cleavage characterized by active mitoses. It is not a period of growth but a time in which the zygote is divided into a large number of small cells, the blastomeres. Each blastomere nucleus has the same DNA since these are derived from the same cell, the zygote. Cleavage ends with the formation of the multicellular organism. d. Blastula The mass of blastomeres forms a hollow fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. In frogs, cells below the blastocoel are large; these are the macromeres.
In humans, at this embryonic stage, the 32-cell cell blastocyst burrows into the uterus. The blastocyst has two distinct cell types; an inner cell mass and an outer shell, the trophoblast. The former will become the embryo, the latter will give rise to the extra-embryonic membranes termed amnion and chorion. e. Gastrula Gastrulation, a stage of extensive cell movements, rearranges the embryonic cells. Cells are translocated to the different areas thus acquiring new neighbors and new positions. The neighbor cells may act as inducers in the formation of structures. The different cell movements establish the third germ layer, the mesoderm. At the end of gastrulation, the embryo has three primary germ layers: an outer ectoderm, an inner endoderm and middle mesoderm. At this stage tissues have become committed to form one type of organ- a brain or stomach. The ectoderm gives rise to the epidermis of the skin, sense organs and the nervous system. The endoderm gives rise to the organs of the respiratory and digestive systems. The mesoderm gives rise to the organs of the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive systems, connective tissues and linings of body cavities. f. Neurula Toward the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm along the dorsal surface elongates to form a layer of columnar cells, the neural plate. This region thickens and moves upwards forming the neural fold which then 164
fuse to form a hollow tube, the neural tube. Closing of the neural tube starts at the head region and continues posteriorly. This piece of tissue gives rise to skin pigments, nerves and the adrenal medulla. g. Organ formation The ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm formed in the gastrulation are the source materials for the development of organs. At this stage the component cells are still undifferentiated and do not show any adult feature. These masses are further subdivided into groups of cells until the organ acquires its unique characteristics and specific location. h. Brain Formation The earliest form of the brain is the nueral tube. At this stage, the brain shows three regionsprosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and the rhombencephalon (hind brain). Later, the prosencephalon divides into telencephalon and diencephalons. The mesencephalon remains undivided. In frogs, the brain is a straight tube and remains in that condition in adult. In humans, the embryonic brain undergoes bending and twisting. Hence in adult, the hindbrain is adjacent to the forebrain and the eyes become anterior to the nose. i. Limb Formation
Limbs start as buds at the embryonic sides, which later develop as paddle-like extremities. Later, circular constrictions appear dividing the limb into three main segments. Fingers and toes develop when cells at the most distal end die. The upper limb rotates 90º sideward so that the thumbs move sideward. The lower limb rotates 90º towards the center, placing the big toe at the center. E. Ecosystem and Ecology The branch of biology that pertains specifically to the relationship of an organism with that of its environment is known as ecology. Ecology is a body of knowledge that covers the economy of nature. It involves the study of overall relationship of an organism to its inorganic/organic environment, that is, the physical world; and its relation and interaction with other organisms, both plants and animals alike. The basic functional unit and the most important concept in ecology is the ecosystem, as it includes both plants and animals and the physical environment, each of which influencing the other. Ecosystem or ecological system may refer to biotic assemblage of plants, animals, microbes interacting among them and with that of the physico-chemical environment. Components of the Ecosystem and Trophic Levels The ecosystem has two basic components – the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. The biotic component is further subdivided into two units, namely, the autotrophs (self nourishing/self feeding) and the heterotrophs (other feeding). The autotrophs are usually chlorophyll-bearing organisms, that are able to harness solar energy. In the presence of water and carbon dioxide, they convert this energy into (chemically-stored energy) known as 165
adenosine triphosphate or ATP. They assume the role as producers in an ecosystem. Plants are the typical producers. However, in aquatic systems, algal communities or phytoplanktons may be the producers. Heterotrophs, on the other hand, are those that depend on the producers as food. They are generally classified as consumers, although those that secure food directly from the producers are better known as herbivores or primary consumers. A secondary consumer or carnivore, on the other hand, derives its nourishment indirectly from the producers by devouring the herbivore. In some ecosystems, tertiary consumers exist. Other heterotrophs include also the decomposers where organic matter is reduced to simpler substances. Structurally therefore, the ecosystem can composite the following, that is, the abiotic factors; the producers; the macroconsumer; and the decomposers. The abiotic component, on the other hand covers climatic, edaphic (soil) and topographic factors. Climate includes light, temperature, precipitation and wind. Light influences the biotic components in many ways, as in photosynthesis, flowering seed dormancy, leaf senescence, nesting, migration and hibernation. Light quality penetrating with increasing water depths also determines the type of producers (i.e. green algae in shallow water and red algae at greater depths). Temperature affects living organisms by influencing their metabolic processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in different ecosystems depending on its availability. Water as the universal solvent plays an important role in the ecosystem as it serves as a medium for biochemical processes. It can determine the type of vegetation in terrestrial ecosystems depending on its availability. In aquatic ecosystems, however, what plays important roles are salinity, ph, temperature and dissolved oxygen. The atmosphere is a major reservoir of nutrients important to life. Nutrient cycling in the atmosphere is further facilitated by wind. The latter also accelerates evapo-transcription rate causing damage to plant structures. However, it plays an important role in facilitating seed dispersal and in the distribution of plants and animals. Biome - is a geographical unit uniformly affected by a common prevailing climate havin a similar flora and fauna. Terrestrial biomes the world over include: Tropical rainforests – which have the highest species diversity Coniferous forests – which harbors the pine-trees Deserts – characterized by very low species diversity Grasslands – also variously called savannahs, steppes and scrubs Taigas and Tundras-characterized by permafrosts Aquatic biomes on the other hand include: Marshlands Lakes Seas and oceans and Estuaries Five Kingdoms 166
Monera – prokaryotic; unicellular; includes the bacteria and the cyanobacteria. Protista – eukaryotic; unicellular/colonial; includes the flagellates, the ciliates, the sarcodines and the algal systems. Fungi – eukaryotic; unicellular (yeasts) and multicellular (molds and mushrooms). Plantae – eukaryotic; multicellular; Animalia – eukaryotic; multicellular; includes the invertebrates and vertebrates. Ecological Relationships a. Mutualism – “give and take” relationship b. Commensalisms- a relationship where the commensal is benefited and the host is neither benefited nor harmed c. Parasitism – a relationship where the parasite is benefited and the host is harmed d. Competition – neither organism in this relationship is benefited e. Predation – a relation where the predator is benefited and the prey is harmed Food Chain Three components of a Food Chains
-
a. Producers – occupies the 1st trophic level; composed of plants and photosynthetic algae b. Consumer herbivore – occupies the 2nd trophic level; 1º consumer carnivore – occupies the 3rd trophic level; 2º consumer omnivore – occupies either the 2nd or 3rd trophic levels. c. Decomposer – the last component of a food chain
Energy Transfer - energy is transferred from one trophic level to another following the 10 % rule.
Food Web - it is a feeding relationship that is illustrative of a series of interlinking food chains. Ecological Laws Two ecological laws can demonstrate this relationship between organisms and their environment. These include Liebig’s Law of Minimum and Shellford’s Law of Tolerance.
Liebig’s Law of Minimum states that “growth and survival of an organism is dependent primarily on the nutrients that are least available. “A plant will grow and develop well where a particular nutrient critical for growth and survival is found to be inadequate or not available at all in that particular area. Take note that magnesium is an important component for the production of chlorophyll, being the central atom of pigment. Shellford’s Law of Tolerance states that “the existence of the organism is within the definable range of conditions.” This means that “ organisms then can live within a range between too much and too little”. Thus an organism han an optimum range of conditions (peak) curve and an intolerance zone, where number of organisms is at its lowest or zero.
Chemistry 167
Chemistry- is a science that studies matter, its properties, structure and the changes it undergoes together with the energy involved. Branches of Chemistry Analytical Chemistry Physical Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry Organic Chemistry Biochemistry Scientific method- a systematic approach/procedure in investigating nature; a combination of observations, experimentation and formulation of laws, hypotheses and theories; an organized approach to research
STEPS A
IN
SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1. Observation or Data Gathering Observations-things perceived by the senses; can be quantitative or qualitative Qualitative – consist of general observations about the system Quantitative – consist of numbers obtained by various measurements of the system Examples:
Ice floats in water Vinegar is sour Body temperature is 39.0oC An object weighs 1.5 kg
Observation vs. Inference 168
Inference – interpretation of the observation e.g. The clouds are dark. (observation) It might rain. (inference) 2. Are the observations answerable by any natural law? Law (natural law) - a pattern or consistency in observation of natural phenomena; a verbal or mathematical statement which relates a series of observation e.g. Law of Conservation of Mass Law of Thermodynamics 3. Defining a problem 4. Formulate a possible solution (Hypothesis Making) Hypothesis- an educated guess to explain an observation; a tentative explanation of a natural law based on observation 5. Experimentation - Is the hypothesis really the answer to the problem? 6. Interpret results. 7. Generate a generalization. Theory- a hypothesis that survived testing through experimentation; a model or a way of looking at nature that can be used to explain and make further predictions about natural phenomena Laboratory Rules and Techniques Do not return extra chemicals to the main supply unless so directed. To avoid waste, take from the supply only the amount of material needed. Perform experiments with the apparatus at arm’s length from the body never directly under the face. If you must smell a substance, hold the container at a distance and, with a cupped hand, waft the fumes toward your nose. Never use cracked or broken equipment. It can complete its breaking. Never pour water into concentrated acid. Always add the acid to the water with stirring. Read the lower meniscus of a colorless liquid at eye level. Use the upper meniscus when the liquid is colored. Never weigh hot substances. Measurements in Chemistry Rules on the Use of Significant Figures NON- ZERO DIGITS All non-zero digits are significant 169
ZEROS IN MEASUREMENTS There may be some confusion about the zero in a measurement. Rules will be used to determine whether zeros are significant or not. 1. Trailing Zeros Final zeros after a decimal point are always significant. e.g. 25.330 g has 5 significant figures 2. Captive Zeros Zeros that are found between any two non-zero digits are significant. e.g 706.3 mm has 4 significant figures 3. Leading Zeros a. Zeros before a decimal point are not significant. e.g 0.786 g has 3 significant figures. b. When there are no digits before a decimal point or when the digit before a decimal point is zero, the zeros after the decimal point preceding other digits are not significant. e.g. 0.000543 cm3 has 3 significant figures 4. Final Zeros in a whole number may or may not be significant. To resolve this, use of exponential is recommended. EXACT NUMBERS Any number that is exact such as the number 3 in the statement “there are three feet in one yard” is said to have unlimited number of significant figures.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION The sum or difference should have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as the factor with the least number of digits to the right of the decimal point. e.g.
35.986 + 675.8 567.3839 1279.1699 1279.2 (five significant figures)
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION 170
The result obtained by multiplication and/or division must have the same number of significant figures as the factor with the least number of significant figures. e.g
(34.6)(3450.0)/345 =346.00 346 (three significant figures)
RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS When the answer to a calculation contains too many significant figures, it must be rounded off to the proper number of significant figures. The rules for rounding off is summarized as follows: 1. If the digit to be removed is less than 5, drop this digit and leave the remaining numbers unchanged. Thus, 1.23 becomes 1.2 when rounded off to two significant figures. 2. If the digit to be removed is equal to or greater than 5, drop this digit and increase the preceding digit by one. Thus, 3.46 becomes 3.5 when rounded off to two significant figures. ACCURACY AND PRECISION Accuracy refers to the nearness of a value to the true or actual value. measured by percentage error Error – the difference between a measured value and the true (or most probable) value. % error = /Average value – True value/ x 100% True value Higher % error, less accurate Precision indication of the agreement among different measurements of the same event. measured by deviation Deviation – absolute value of the difference of the measured value from the average value Deviation = /Measured value – Average value/
Higher deviation, less precise MATTER Matter- anything that has mass, takes up space (volume) and possesses inertia Matter
Pure substances
Elements
Compounds
Mixture 171 Homogeneous (Solution)
Heterogeneous
Pure Substance- homogeneous matter that cannot be separated into its components by physical means; with fixed composition and distinct properties Types of Pure Substances: a. Elements- pure substance composed only of 1 type of atom; cannot be decomposed by ordinary means into simpler substances (Ex. H, He, Au, W) b. Compounds- two or more elements chemically combined in a definite and constant proportion (Ex. KCl, CH3COOH, MgCl2) Ionic Compounds Structural units are the cations and anions In the solid state, the ions do not move from their positions in the lattice but only vibrate in place Properties of Ionic Compounds Melting Point: High Electrical Conductivity: Solid
Non-conducting
Molten Conducting Aqueous
Conducting
Hardness: Very Hard Malleability: Brittle Covalent Molecular Substances Uncharged or neutral structural units (molecules) in the crystal lattice. The atoms in each molecule are held together by strong COVALENT BONDS. Properties of Covalent Molecular Compounds Melting Point: Low Electrical Conductivity: Solid
Non-conducting
Molten Non-conducting Aqueous
Non-conducting
Hardness: Soft Malleability: Brittle Covalent Network Substances 172
The structural units that occupy the lattice points in the solid are ATOMS. The atoms are bound to each other by strong COVALENT BONDS. Properties of Covalent Network Substances Melting Point: Very high Electrical Conductivity: Solid
Non-conducting (except graphite)
Molten Non-conducting Aqueous
Insoluble
Hardness: Very Hard Malleability: Brittle Mixture- combination of different substances in variable proportions; can be separated into its components by physical methods of separation Types of Mixtures: a. Homogeneous- uniform composition and properties throughout a given sample, but composition and properties may vary from one sample to another (e. g. solutions) b. Heterogeneous- with non-uniform properties throughout a sample where components retain their identity and phase boundaries exist (e.g. colloids, suspensions) Other Classification of Matter a. Physical States of Matter (Phases of Matter) SOLID – rigid, has definite volume and shape LIQUID – fluid ( has ability to flow), takes the shape of the portion of the container they occupy GAS – fluid, expands to fill up its container b. Special forms based on arrangement of particles and the degree of cohesiveness Crystalline solids; amorphous solids; liquid crystals Crystalline solids – high degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles Amorphous/non-crystalline solids – disordered arrangement of particles but with a high degree of cohesiveness Liquid crystals – medium degree of cohesiveness and very orderly arrangement of particles; allows a degree of ordered motion of particles PROPERTIES OF MATTER Properties of Matter 173 Extensive/E xtrinsic
Intensive/ Intrinsic
Physical
Chemical
Extensive Properties
properties that depend on the amount of material observed
e.g. mass, volume, texture Intensive Properties
properties that does not depend on the amount of material observed
e.g. density, odor, taste Extrinsic Properties
properties that can vary with different samples of the same material
e.g mass, volume, size Intrinsic Properties of the same substance
properties which are inherent to the substance and do not change for different samples
e.g. density, boiling and melting points, odor, taste Physical properties the material
characteristics observed or measured without changing the identity or composition of
Chemical Properties characteristics observed or measured only by changing the identity or composition of the material; ability or inability of matter to undergo a change in its identity or composition at given conditions Changes in Matter Changes in Matter
Physical Change
Chemical Change
Phase Change
Solid
Physical Change
Liquid
Synthesis
Decomposition
Single Displacement
Gas
Double Displacement
changes in the phase or state of a substance but not its composition
e.g. changes in state (liquid gas), shape or size (granules powder) 174
Phase Change – determined by existing conditions of temperature and pressure Sublimation
Solid to Gas
Deposition
Gas to Solid
Melting
Solid to Liquid
Freezing
Liquid to Solid
Evaporation
Liquid to Gas
Condensation
Gas to Liquid
Chemical Change
substances are converted into other substances
e.g. rusting of iron, burning of wood Types of Chemical Reactions 1. SYNTHESIS / COMBINATION –
formation of a bigger compound from simpler ones
A+B+C…D 2. DECOMPOSITION -
A single compound is broken down to 2 or more simpler substances
- Solids require heat () AB+C+D+… 3. Single Displacement-
Cation or anion is replaced by an uncombined element AB + C AC + B
4. Double Displacement – Metathesis
Exchange of partners
AB + CD AD + CB Other types: Combustion - Reaction with O2 to form CO2, H2O, N2 and oxides of any other elements present Precipitation - Formation of a precipitate when a solution is added to another Precipitate – an insoluble or slightly soluble solid that forms when 2 solutions are mixed. Solubility Rules 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
All nitrates are soluble. All acetates are soluble. All NH4+ salts are soluble. All salts of Group 1 are soluble. All chlorides are soluble except chlorides of Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+. All bromides are soluble except bromides of Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+. All iodides are soluble except iodides of Hg2+, Hg22+, Pb2+ and Ag+ Most sulfates are soluble except Group 2, Pb2+ and Hg2+. All phosphates are insoluble except NH4+ and Group 1. All chromates are insoluble except NH4+ and Group 1. Neutralization - Reaction between an acid and a base forming water and salt 175
LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION 1. Law of Conservation of Mass Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) - “Father of Chemistry” Established chemistry as a quantitative science Studied combustion “In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the starting materials (reactants) is equal to the total mass of the materials produced (products).” 2. Law of Definite Proportion or Composition Joseph Proust (1754-1826) Showed that copper carbonate always has the ff. proportion by mass: 5.3 parts Cu : 4 parts O : 1 part C “Any sample of a pure chemical substance contains the same elements in the same definite proportion by mass of its elements.” 3. Law of Multiple Proportion John Dalton (1766-1844) “In different compounds of the same elements, the different masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers.” HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ATOM Greeks (400 BC) o Matter was composed of 4 fundamental substances: FIRE, EARTH, WATER, AIR Leucippus and Democritus (5th BC) o First to propose that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called “atomos” meaning indivisible Lucretius and the Greeks (1 BC) o What appears as a solid object may actually consist of small particles o There must be some limit to the number of subdivisions which can be formed on any bit of matter o Matter can be resolved ultimately into a unit which is indivisible and indestructible “ATOM” means cannot be cut/destroyed - The Greeks were only concerned on the existence of the atom but not on its nature DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY John Dalton (1766-1844) In 1808, published the book “A New System of Chemical Philosophy” wherein he presented the atomic theory in detail. Dalton’s Billiard Ball Model The atom is a tiny, hard, indestructible sphere.
176
Dalton’s Atomic Theory 1. 2. 3. 4.
Matter consists of tiny particles called atoms which are indestructible. All atoms in a given element are identical and have the same mass. Atoms of different elements have different properties. Reactions involve only the rearrangement of atoms; separation or union. When atoms combine to form compounds, the ratio of the no. of combining atoms is fixed. Thompson’s Raisin Bread/ Plum Pudding Model Joseph John Thomson (1904) Studied cathode ray tubes
The cathode rays are repelled by the negative pole of a magnetic field This suggests that the ray consists of a stream of negatively charged particles All atoms must contain electrons.
An atom is a diffuse, spherical cloud of positive electrification with randomly embedded negatively charged electrons. Thomson measured the charge to mass ratio of the electron: e/m = -1.76 x 108 c/g He also showed that whatever metal is used as a cathode and whatever gas is present inside the tube, the cathode ray consist of the same particles as shown by the same e/m ratio. Importance of Thomson’s Experiment It correctly suggested that the atom consists of an arrangement of + and – charges. It postulated the presence of the electron in all matter Robert Millikan (1909) Using oil drop experiments, he determined the charge of an electron: -1.6 x 10-19 c Thus the mass of an electron is (using e/m ratio): 9.11 x 10-28 g 177
Rutherford’s Nuclear Atom Model (Alpha Scattering Experiment)
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) and Hans Geiger (1882-1945) Majority were undeflected Some were slightly deflected
Few bounced off
Explanations: Most of the mass and all the (+) charges on an atom are centered in a very small region called the nucleus. The atom is mostly empty space. The magnitude of (+) charge is different for different atoms. Electrons move around the (+) nucleus.
Eugene Goldstein (1850-1930) Goldstein, in 1886 identified the positively charged particle and named it proton He used cathode with holes and observed rays passing through the holes opposite in direction to those of the cathode rays.
178
The mass of this particle almost the same as the mass of the H atom The charge is equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign to that of the electron)
Bohr’s Solar System Model of the Atom Neils Bohr (1885-1962) In 1913, tried to explain the line spectra of hydrogen Features: The electrons move about the nucleus in certain circular orbits. Only certain orbits and energies are allowed. The electron can remain in an orbit indefinitely. In the presence of radiant energy, the electron may absorb E and move to an orbit with higher E Quantum or Wave-Mechanical Model Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), Erwin Schrodinger (18871961), Werner Heisenberg (1879-1976) Features: The energy of the electron is quantized. The electron moves in 3-D space around the nucleus but not in an orbit of definite radius. The position of the electron cannot be defined exactly, only the probability. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle •
There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we can know both the position and the momentum of a particle at a given time. The Nature of Light - Radiant energy that exhibits wavelike behavior and travels through space at the speed of light in a vacuum. It has oscillating magnetic electric fields in planes perpendicular to each other. Primary Characteristics of Wave 1. WAVELENGTH, λ - distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave 2. FREQUENCY, - number of waves or cycles per second that pass a given point in space Relationship of λ and 179
and
λ 1/ν
or
λν = c
Where c= speed of light (2.9979 x 108 m/s) Atomic Spectra - The spectra produced by certain gaseous substances consist of only a limited number of colored lines with dark spaces between them. - This discontinuous spectra. - Each element has its own distinctive line spectrum- a kind of atomic fingerprint. Robert Bunsen (1811-1899) and Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887) • Developed the first spectroscope and used it to identify elements. Max Planck (1858-1947) • • • • •
Explained certain aspects of blackbody radiation Blackbody – any object that is a perfect emitter and a perfect absorber of radiation • Sun and earth’s surface behave approximately as blackbodies Proposed that energy, like matter, is discontinuous. When the energy increases from one allowed value to the next, it increases by a tiny jump or quantum. Matter could absorb or emit energy only in the whole number multiples of the quantity. E=hv where E is energy h is Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 Js v is frequency So, ΔE = n hv
Where n is an integer (1,2,3…)
Energy is “quantized” and can only occur in discrete units of size hv (packets of energy called Quantum) Transfer of energy can only occur in whole quanta, thus, energy seems to have particulate properties. Albert Einsetein (1879-1955) • Proposed that electromagnetic radiation is itself quantized • Electromagnetic radiation can be viewed as a stream of particles called PHOTONS Summary of the Works of Einstein and Plancks • •
Energy is quantized. It can occur only in discrete units called quanta. Electromagnetic radiation, which was previously thought to exhibit only wave properties, also exhibit particulate properties, thus the dual nature of light. If light has particulate properties, not just wave, does matter also have wave properties, not just particulate? Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) • •
Small particles of matter may at times display wavelike properties. For a particle with velocity, v m=h/λv 180
Then λ = h / mv Thus, we can calculate the wavelength for a particle. • • • •
All matter exhibits both particulate and wave properties. Large pieces of matter predominantly exhibit particulate properties because their λ is so small that it is not observable. Very small pieces of matter such as photons exhibit predominantly wave properties. Those with intermediate mass, such as electrons, show clearly both particulate and wave properties.
MODERN VIEW OF THE ATOM ALLOTROPE – elements with different forms (composed of one type of element) ISOTOPES – elements with different mass number due to the difference in the number of neutrons ISOBARS – different elements with the same mass number but different atomic number Atom and the subatomic particles The diameter of an atom is in the order of 10-8 cm The nucleus is roughly 10-13 cm in diameter (1/100,000 diameter of the atom) The charge of the nucleus is a unique character of the atoms of an element The charge is positive Particles within the nucleus PROTON Eugene Goldstein (1886) from Greek “protos” meaning “first” mass of p+ = 1.67 x 10-24 g charge = +1.60 x 10-19 c The no. of p+ is a unique property of an element # of p+ = atomic #, Z = nuclear charge = # of e -s in a neutral atom NEUTRON
James Chadwick (1932) Protons cannot account for the total mass of the atom Has the same mass as the proton but has no charge Symbol: n0 mass of p+ + mass of n0 = mass of atom (atomic mass) # of p+ + # of n0 = mass #, A A = Z + # of n0
ELECTRON 181
Ernest Rutherford negatively charged in a neutral atom : # of e - = # of p+ = Z Summary: Particle
Discovery
Mass in grams
Charge
Electron
discovered by JJ Thomson; name given by George Stoney
9.11 x 10-28
-1
Proton
discovered by Rutherford in 1911, name given by Goldstein
1.67 x 10-24
+1
Neutron
discovered and named by James Chadwick, 1932
1.67 x 10-24
Symbol of the Atom Atomic number, Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus Ex. The element N has 7 protons, so Z= 7.
Mass number, A, is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom Ex. An atom with 5 protons and 5 neutrons has an atomic number of 5 and a mass number of 10 ISOTOPES Francis William Astron (1877-1945) – observed using the mass spectrometer that neon has 3 isotopes The listed atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the atomic masses of the naturally occurring isotopes. Atomic mass = (% abundance)(isotopic mass) For Ions (+) charge – cation - Lost electrons equal to the charge (-) charge – anion - Gained electrons equal to the charge NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY - proposed by Marie Curie (1867-1934)
182
Spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus with accompanying emission of radiation in order to form a more stable species. Nuclear Equation • The sum of the mass #’s (A) must be the same on both sides • The sum of atomic #’s (Z) must be the same on both sides Nuclide •
A nucleus with a specified mass # (A), # of p+ (Z) and # of n0 • Stable nuclide • Radioactive nuclide
Stability of Nuclide • • •
ODD-EVEN RULE • Even # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be stable • Odd # of n0 and p+ : more likely to be unstable MAGIC NUMBER • Isotopes with specific # of p+ or n0 are more stable than the rest: • 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126 All nuclides with 84 or more protons are radioactive. • e. g. Po, At ….
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 1. ALPHA DECAY OR EMISSION • - particle: • Heavy, travel short distances • Usually emitted by a heavy nuclei 2. BETA DECAY OR EMISSION OR NEGATRON EMISSION • •
particle (negatron) Usually when neutrons are in excess, are transformed into protons with emission of beta particles.
they
3. POSITRON EMISSION •
Usually when p+ are in excess, these transformed into n0 with emission of positron
are
183
4. ELECTRON CAPTURE OR K- CAPTURE •
Usually happens when p+ are in excess (as in positron emission) • Nuclear stability achieved by capturing one of the inner e -s (lowest level or K- shell) converting a p+ to a n0 • X-rays emitted 5. GAMMA EMISSION ( – radiation is emitted) • •
E
high energy photons or radiation similar to x-rays but shorter , high , penetration no mass, A and Z of nucleus remain unchanged
NUCLEAR FISSION • Heavy nucleus splits into 2 or more lighter nuclei • Occurs when a heavy nucleus is struck with projectiles or bullets (nuclear particles) NUCLEAR FUSION • Nuclei of lighter elements are made to combine to form heavier nuclei • Occurs at very high temp. • More E released but difficult to harness HALF-LIFE, t1/2 • Time required for half of radioactive nuclei in a sample to undergo radioactive decay • Constant for every radioactive isotope t1/2 = ln 2/ k k is the rate ln (N/N0) = -kt
N0 = initial amount or activity N = amount left or activity left after time t
THE ELUSIVE ELECTRON Quantum Number – describes the orbital and the electron ORBITAL is an energy state for an electron described by the three quantum numbers n, l and ml - may hold two electrons with opposite spins 1. Principal Quantum Number (n) 184
high
Take positive, nonzero integral values: 1,2,3… Main energy level or principal shell As n increases: orbital becomes larger, e- becomes farther from the nucleus higher E- e- is less tightly bound to the nucleus 2. Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) Values: 0 to n-1 for each value of n Sublevel or subshell Related to the shape of the orbital
Orbital Symbol - combination of n and l - consists of a number (for n) and a letter (for l) e.g. 3s n = 3 ; l is s = 0
l
Letter designation
s
1
p
2
d
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) 3 f Values: l to –l including zero Related to the orientation in space of the angular momentum associated with the orbital Degenerate orbitals – orbitals having the same energies e.g. the three p-orbitals have the same energy 4. Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms) Values: +1/2, -1/2 The value does not depend on any of the three quantum numbers Pauli Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli 1900 -1958) - In a given atom, no 2 e-’s can have the same set of 4 q.nos. 185
Thus, an orbital can hold only 2 e-’s, and they must have opposite spins. Electronic Configuration – describes the manner in which are arranged in an atom
electrons
Ground state electronic configuration- lowest arrangement of electrons
energy
Excited state- allowed arrangements of electrons than the ground state
other
Isoelectronic- same number of electrons Rules to remember when writing ground state electronic configurations ¤ ¤
Aufbau Principle- the orbitals of an atom are filled in order of increasing energy - According to the (n+l) rule. The lower the value of (n+l), the lower the energy of the orbital. If the (n+l) values of two orbitals are the same, the one with lower n is filled first. Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity- the lowest energy arrangement of electrons in a set of degenerate orbitals is where there is a maximum number of electrons of the same spin. Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals singly before pairing.
THE PERIODIC TABLE
The Elements there are 112 elements to date, 90 of which are naturally occurring Early Classifications 1. Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner’s Law of Triads (1817) - In a triad , the combining weight of the central member is the average of its partners. 2. John Newlands’ Law of Octaves (1865) - When elements are arranged in increasing atomic mass, every eighth element had similar properties. Shortcomings: Some positions were forced just to maintain his proposition Some positions contained 2 elements There were no room for other elements which may be discovered 3. Julius Lothar Meyer’s Atomic Volume Curve and Periodic Table (1869)
186
A periodic trend in properties is observed when elements are arranged in increasing atomic weights. 4. Dmitri Mendeleev’s Periodic Table and Periodic Law (1869) Properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights Predicted the discovery of 10 elements The Modern Periodic Law - The properties of the elements are functions of their atomic numbers Groups Vertical rows Previous notation: IA – VIIIA, IB – VIII New IUPAC* notation: 1-18 *IUPAC – International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Elements belonging to the same group have similar (not identical) properties Special names of some groups Group 1 – Alkali metals Group 2 – Alkaline earth metals Group 17 – Halogens Group 18 – Noble Gases Periods Horizontal rows Properties of elements that belong to a period show a pattern or trend that is repeated in the next period Numbered 1-7 Pattern in Ion Formation Most elements form ions (except noble gases) Group 1 : +1 Group 15 : -3 Group 2 : +2 Group 16 : -2 Group 13 : +3 Group 17 : -1 Group 14 : do not readily form ions Of the known elements, 11are gases at room temperature. four are liquids at 25°C, Hg, Br, Ga and Cs. If Fr can be prepared in large quantities, it is expected to be a liquid. Property
Across a period (left to right)
Down a group (top to bottom)
atomic size/radius
Decreasing
Increasing
ionization energy
Increasing
Decreasing
affinity for electrons
Increasing (upto Group 17)
Decreasing
Tendency Cation
to
form Decreasing
Increasing
Tendency
to
form Increasing (upto Group 17)
Decreasing
187
Anion Metallic Character
Decreasing
Increasing
Electronegativity
Increasing
Decreasing
Note: The size of the cation is smaller as compared to its neutral atom The size of the anion is larger as compared to its neutral atom. Atomic Size ► Covalent radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms joined by a single covalent bond. ► Metallic radius – ½ the distance between the nuclei of 2 atoms in contact in the crystalline solid metal. Ionization Energy ► Energy required to remove an e- from a gaseous atom or ion X(g) X+(g) + eWhere the atom or ion is assumed to be in its ground state Affinity for electrons ► Tendency of an atom or ion to attract additional eX(g) + e- X- (g)
Electronegativity ► The attraction of an atom for shared electrons. Note: Metals react with oxygen gas forming a basic oxide in water. Nonmetals react with oxygen gas forming an acidic oxide in water. CHEMICAL LANGUAGE AND SHORTHAND Chemical symbols An element is represented by a symbol which may be one or two letters; the first is capitalized and the second is in the lower case. The symbols may be derived from the Greek, German or Latin names of the elements. Binary Covalent Compounds 188
Binary covalent compounds are formed between two non-metals A. Naming binary covalent compounds 1. Identify the elements present in the compound given by the chemical formula. The name of the more metallic element is written first. 2. Change the suffix of the less metallic element to –ide. 3. Use the prefix corresponding to the number of atoms present in the compound. Number
Greek Prefix
Number
Greek Prefix
1
Mono-
6
Hexa-
2
Di-
7
Hepta-
3
Tri-
8
Octa-
4
Tetra-
9
Nona-
5
Penta
10
Deca-
The mono- prefix is frequently omitted, particularly for well-known substances. If no prefix is use, it usually implies that no number of atoms of element is one. However, experts in nomenclature caution that this can be dangerous and suggest that it is better to include the mono- prefix. Some compounds are known only by their common names. The most common of this are: Forrmula H2O NH3 PH3 Name Water Ammonia Phosphate . Writing formulas of binary compounds 1. Represent each kind of element in a compound with the correct symbol of element.
189
2. Indicate by a subscript the number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound. 3. Write the symbol of the more metallic element first. (H is an exception to this rule.) IONIC COMPOUNDS Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals are called ionic compounds. A. Naming Ionic Compound 1. Write the name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion. 2. Unlike binary covalent compounds, PREFIXES ARE NOT USE to indicate the number of ions present in the formula. Note that for ionic compounds, the prefixes are not attached to the chemical name to denote the number of atoms of the elements. The number of atoms is implied by the charges of the cation and the anion. It is therefore important to know the charges of the common cations and anions. 3. Most transition metals can exist in more than one ionic form. Thus, it is important to know the charge of the cations in their compounds. Examples: Formula
Stock system
Old system
SnCl4
tin (IV) chloride
stannic chloride
SnBr2
tin (II) bromide
stannous bromide
The method of indicating the charge of the cation involves placing a Roman numeral equivalent to the magnitude of the charge of the cation in parenthesis after the English name is called the Stock System of Nomenclature.
Some ionic compounds form crystals that contain a certain proportion of water molecules apart from the ions of the compound. Such compounds are called HYDRATES. Hydrates are named just like other ionic compounds except for the addition of the “hydrate” with a Greek prefix indicating the number of water molecules per unit of the ionic compound. Example:
CuSO45H2O
copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate or cupric sulfate pentahydrate
B. Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds 1. Write the symbol of the positive ion (cation) first, followed by the symbol of the negative ion (anion). 2. Write the charge of each ion over the symbol of that ion. Usually, for the main group elements, the group number usually gives the charge of the monoatomic ion. Remember that Group 1 elements would have a charge of (+1); Group 2 (+2); Group 3 (+3); Group 16 (-2); Group 17 (-1); and Group 18 (0) unless indicated.
190
3. Choose a subscript that will make the net charge zero. The simplest procedure is to use the absolute value of the charge of the anion as the subscript for the cation; and the absolute value of the cation charge as the subscript for the anion (CROSS-OVER RULE). When both subscripts in the formula can be divided by same number to simplify the formula, you should do so, unless you know the actual molecule represented. 4. For hydrates, follow the same steps, then add a centered dot, followed by the number of water molecules (indicated by the prefix) and the chemical formula of water. ACIDS A. Naming Binary Acids Binary acids contain only two different elements- hydrogen and a nonmetal. Binary acids are named as hydro ____ic acid, where the stem of the nonmetal is inserted in place of the line. Thus, HF- hydrofluoric acid and HBr- hydrobromic acid The names hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen bromide are also used for HF and HBr, respectively. Both names are correct although the convention is that these compounds are named as acids when they are present in aqueous solutions. Thus, HF in aqueous solution is hydrofluoric acid, but pure HF is referred to as hydrogen fluoride. B. Naming Oxyacids Another type of acid is the oxyacids derived from the oxyanions. Since some elements form more than one oxyanion, they also form more than one oxyacid. The name of the oxyacid is derived from the name of the oxyanion with a change in the suffix using the following rules: 1. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ate, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ____ic acid. Example
SO42-
sulfate
H2SO4
sulfuric acid
ClO4-
perchlorate
HClO4
perchloric acid
2. If the name of the oxyanion ends in –ite, the name of the oxyacid will be of the form ___ous acid. Example
SO32-
sulfite
H2SO3
sulfurous acid
ClO-
hypochlorite
HClO
hypochlorous acid
Names and Symbols of Some Common Polyatomic Anions Formula
Name
Formula
Name
OH-
Hydroxide
NO3-
Nitrate
O22-
Peroxide
NO2-
Nitrite
191
CN-
Cyanide
CH3COO-
Acetate
N3-
Azide
CrO42-
Chromate
SO42-
Sulfate
Cr2O72-
Dichromate
SO32-
Sulfite
MnO4-
Permanganate
HSO4-
Hydrogen bisulfate
sulfate
or C2O42-
Oxalate
HSO3-
Hydrogen bisulfite
sulfite
or SCN-
Thiocyanate
PO43-
Phosphate
CO32-
Carbonate
HPO42-
Hydrogen phosphate
HCO3-
H2PO4-
Hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate
Dihydrogen phosphate
Some common oxyanions Chlorine
Bromine
ClO4-
Perchlorate
BrO4-
Perbromate
ClO3-
Chlorate
BrO3-
Bromate
ClO2-
Chlorite
BrO2-
Bromite
ClO-
Hypochlorite
BrO-
Hypobromite
STOICHIOMETRY Chemical Reactions • •
Processes in which substances are changed into one or more new substances Represented by chemical equations: Reactants Products
2H2
+ 1 O2
2 molecules + 2 moles
1 molecule
+ 1 mole
2H2O 2 molecules 2 moles 192
4.04 g
+ 32.00 g
36.04 g reactants
36.04 g
36.04 g products
FOLLOWS THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS Balancing Chemical Equations Some important points: • Use correct chemical formulas • Adjust only the coefficients, NOT the subscripts • Balance elemental forms ( e.g. Ar, Cu, Na, O2, N2, I2, S8…) and H and O last. • Use the simplest possible set of whole no. coefficients Stoichiometry- The quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction Mole Method - The stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number of moles of each substance. Steps: • Write correct chemical formulas and balance the equation. • Convert the quantities into moles. • Use the mole ratios to calculate moles of the required substance. • Convert calculated moles to whatever units required. Three types of calculation:
The Mole In 1971, at the 14th meeting of the General Conference of Weights and Measures, scientists agreed to adopt the mole as the unit of an amount of substance The mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of substance that contains the same number of elementary particles as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of C-12. Ways of expressing the mole: 1. by number of particles (use Avogrado’s number, 6.02 x 10 23 particles per mole) 193
2. by mass (use molar mass) 3. by volume (use molar volume, 22.4 L at STP) Interconversions ÷ MM
Mass
x 6.02 x 1023
Mole x MM
No. of particles ÷ 6.02 x 1023
The molar mass is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance. The molar mass is numerically equal to the atomic mass (or atomic weight) of an atom or the formula mass of a molecule, a compound or a polyatomic ion. Formula and Composition The percentage composition of a compound is a list of the percentages by weight of the elements in the compound. The percentage by weight of an element in a compound is numerically equal to the number of grams of the element that are present in 100 g of the compound Ex. What is the percentage composition of quick lime, CaO? Ans. 71.5% Ca, 28.5% O Empirical Formula- is the formula with lowest possible whole number subscripts to represent the composition of the compound. It can be determined from the % composition data. Ex. Barium carbonate, a white powder used in paints, enamels and ceramic, has the following composition: Ba, 69.58%; C, 6.090% and O, 24.03%. Determine its empirical formula Ans. BaCO3 Molecular Formula- gives the actual composition or the actual number of atoms of each element present in one molecule or one formula unit of the compound Ex. Molecular formula of glucose: C6H12O6 Empirical Formula of glucose: CH2O Stoichiometry of Reactions Chemical Stoichiometry- is the quantitative relationship of the amounts of reactants used and amounts of products formed in a reaction. This mass relationship is expressed in the balanced equation for the reaction. Percent yield- portion of the theoretical yield of product that is actually obtained in the reaction %yield= (actual amt of product obtained/ theoretical amt) x 100 194
Theoretical Yield - the amount of product that would result if all the LR reacted. - Maximum obtainable yield Actual Yield - The amount of product actually obtained from a reaction - Always less than theoretical yield Limiting reactant- reactant that is completely consumed in the reaction. It also determines the amount of products that can be formed. Excess reactant- reactant that is not completely used up in a chemical reaction
TIES THAT CHEMISTRY BIND Chemical Bonds- net forces of attractions that hold atoms together Properties: Bond energy – amount of energy that must be supplied to separate the atoms that make a bond Bond length – distance between 2 nuclei of 2 covalently bonded atoms Bond order – number of bonds between atoms Types of Chemical Bonds a. covalent bond- pair of electrons that is shared by two atoms of nonmetals; represented by Lewis structure or electron dot formula Types of Covalent Bonds: Single bond - two atoms held by one e- pair Double bond – two atoms held by 2 e- pairs Triple bond – two atoms held by 3 e- pairs •
Higher Bond order, shorter Bond length, higher Bond energy Polar covalent bond – one atom is more electronegative than the other atom; unequal sharing of electrons; the more electronegative atom is partially negative and the less electronegative atom is partially positive. Nonpolar covalent bond – equal sharing of electrons Coordinate Covalent Bond – the electrons being shared comes from a single atom b. ionic bond or electrovalent bond– It is the transefer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal, i.e., the metal loses an electron while the nonmetal gains an electron converting them intro charged ions.
195
- attraction between cations and anions c. metallic bond- the attraction between the cations in the lattice and the “sea of delocalized electrons” moving within the lattice
Lewis Structure-one or a combination of Lewis symbols to represent a single atom (neutral or charged), a molecule or a polyatomic ion. - based on Octet Rule Octet rule- the observed tendency of atoms of the main block elements to lose, gain or share electrons in order to acquire an octet of electrons in their outermost main energy level It is more appropriately called Noble Gas Rule Electron Pairs could either be Lone pairs – pairs of electrons localized on an atom Bonding pairs – those found in the space between the atoms Drawing Lewis Structures 1. Sum the valence electrons from all atoms (total # of e-’s) Total electrons = sum of the valence electrons of all atoms – charge 2. Determine the central atom and draw the skeletal structure. Cental atom is the most metallic atom or the least electronegative. 3. Use a pair of e-’s to form a bond between each pair of bound atoms. 4. Distribute remaining electrons to the terminal atoms to satisfy octet. 5. If there are still available electrons, put them on the central atom to satisfy octet. 6. If the central atom does not satisfy octet, move electron pair (lone pair) from the terminal atoms towards the central atom to form multiple bonds. STRICT FOLLOWERS of OCTET: C, N, O, F and H (2 electrons) 7. Check the Lewis structure. H and F are always terminal atoms and joined by a single bond. HYPERVALENT ATOM – atom that could accommodate more than the octet due to low-lying d- orbitals. RESONANCE - The use of two or more Lewis Structures to represent a particular molecule or ion. - Can be written for molecules/ions having a double or a triple bond and single bond(s). Resonance Structures- one of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only one Lewis structure. 196
- The true structure is the average or the “hybrid” of the resonance structures. FORMAL CHARGE- Used to evaluate non-equivalent Lewis structures (different from resonance structures) = no. of valence electron in the free state – no. of nonbonding electrons – no. of bonds
GEOMETRY OR SHAPE OF MOLECULES - the three-dimensional arrangements of atoms in a molecule - governed by VSEPR Theory Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory - The structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron pair repulsions Steps for using VSEPR Theory 1. 2. 3. 4.
Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule/ion. Count the e- pairs around the central atom and arrange them in the way that minimizes repulsions. Determine the positions of the atoms from the ways the e- pairs are shared. Name the molecule structure from the positions of the atoms.
Type of Molecule
Geometry
Polarity
AX2
Linear
Nonpolar
AX3
Trigonal planar
Nonpolar
AX2E
Bent or V-shaped
Polar
AX4
Tetrahedral
Nonpolar
AX3E
Trigonal pyramidal
Polar
AX2E2
Bent or V-shaped
Polar
AX5
Trigonal bipyramidal
Nonpolar
AX4E
See-saw –shaped
Polar
AX3E2
T-shaped
Polar
AX2E3
Linear
Nonpolar
AX6
Octahedral
Nonpolar
AX5E
Square pyramidal
Polar 197
AX4E2
Square planar
Nonpolar
AX3E3
T-shaped
Polar
AX2E4
Linear
Nonpolar
* The polarity are always TRUE if the substituents are the same since the net dipole is zero. The dipole moments cancel out. X number of substituents E no. of lone pairs Repulsion Order: Lone Pair (LP) – LP repulsion > LP- bonding pair (BP) repulsion > BP- BP repulsion *For the VSEPR model , molecules with multiple bonds, multiple bonds count as one effective e- pair * When a molecule exhibits resonance, any one of the resonance structures can be used to predict the geometry
Bond Polarity – results from a net dipole moment Dipole moment – results from the difference of electronegativity
INTERMOLECULAR ATTRACTION (IMFA) Types:
FORCES
OF
Interactions among molecules (not within the molecules) Weaker than ionic or covalent bonding Explains the physical states of the molecules
1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF) 2. Dipole-Dipole Forces (DDF) 3. Hydrogen Bonding London Dispersion Forces (LDF)
Relatively weak forces that exist among noble gas atoms and non-polar molecules Atoms can develop a momentary non-symmetrical edistribution (instantaneous dipole) 198
This atom can induce a similar dipole in the neighboring atom Polarizability The ease with which a dipole can be induced in an atom or molecule Increases with increasing no. of e-’s (increased MM). results to higher boiling point Increasing polarizability, stronger LDF Dipole-dipole Forces
Exhibited by polar molecules Stronger than LDF Only about 1% as strong as covalent or ionic bonds Molecules with dipole moments can attract each other electrostatically so that the positive and negative ends are close to each other
Hydrogen Bonding
Special type of dipole-dipole forces Exhibited by molecules with H-F, H-O or H-N bonds Occurs when an H atom is “sandwiched” between or N:
F,O
Strongest IMFA due to:
Small size of the H atom – molecules can approach each other closely High electronegativity of F,O,N – H is pulled closely; highly polar bond The structure of ice due to H-bonding is shown on the left. There is hollow space making ice less dense than water.
Nature of Liquids as Effects of IMFA 1. Surface Tension- Ability to resist an increase in surface area Stronger IMFA, higher surface tension
2.Viscosity – fluid’s resistance to flow Stronger IMFA, higher viscosity 3. Vapor Pressure- Vapor exerted by a vapor at equilibrium with its liquid at a given temp. Stronger IMFA, lower vapor pressure 4. Enthalpy of Vaporization, ∆Hvap- Energy that must be supplied to evaporate a liquid at 1 atm 199
Stronger IMFA, higher ∆Hvap 5. Boiling Point- temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals atmospheric pressure Stronger IMFA, higher boiling point 6. Freezing Point/ Melting Point- temperature at which the rate of liquid converting to solid equals the rate of solid converting to the liquid Stronger IMFA, higher FP/MP
7. Heat of Fusion, ∆Hfus- amount of heat required to melt a specified amount of solid at its MP Stronger IMFA, higher ∆Hfus PHASE CHANGES AND PHASE DIAGRAMS The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) 1. 2. 3. 4.
Applied to gases: Gases consist of large number of particles (molecules or atoms). The gas particles are far apart. The volume therefore is negligible. The particles are in constant, random and rapid motion. They move in all directions At higher temp. the particles move faster. As the temp. of the gas increases, the ave. KE of the particles also increases. 5. The particles are so far apart that the repulsion or attraction between them is negligible. KMT extended to liquids 1. Liquids consist of large number of particles. 2. These particles are close together. 3. The particles are in constant motion. Their motion is more limited compared to that in gases because of their nearness to each other but their can slip around one another. 4. The dependence between temperature and KE is the same as that in gases. 5. The particles experience attractive forces between them since they are closer to each other. KMT extended to liquids 1. Solids like liquids and gases consist of large number of particles. 2. The particles are close together, as in liquids. The difference is that the molecules in a solid have a very well-ordered arrangement. 3. The movement of particles consist mostly of vibration within a fixed point. 4. The dependence between temp. and KE is the same as that of gases and liquids. 5. The particles experience attractive forces between them. These forces are stronger compared to that in liquids. Factors Affecting Vaporization 1. 2. 3. 4.
Atmospheric pressure – the lower the pressure above the liquid, the faster the rate of vaporization Humidity – high humidity, slow rate of vaporization Surface area – a large surface area provides more molecules the opportunity to escape Motion of the atmosphere – vaporization occurs rapidly in moving air than in still air 200
Heating Curve
At constant temperature, phase change occurs and at this temperature, kinetic energy is constant while potential energy is increasing
At increasing temperature, kinetic energy is increasing while potential energy is constant.
PHASE DIAGRAM
Triple point – all 3 states are present Critical point: Critical temp. – temp.above which the vapor cannot be liquefied no matter what pressure is applied Critical pressure – pressure required to produce liquefaction at the critical temp. Supercritical Fluid (SCF) Has the high density of a liquid but the low viscosity of a gas Molecules in SCF, being in much closer proximity than in ordinary gases, can exert strong attractive forces on the molecules of a liquid or solid solute GASES Properties: Expansion Indefinite shape Compressibility Ease of mixing Low density Jan Baptista van Helmont- coined the term “chaos” or “gas” Evangelista Toricelli- showed that the air in the atmosphere exerts pressure; designed the first barometer Properties of Gases (Measurable) 201
1. Pressure (P)- force per unit area P= F/A
SI unit: 1 Pa= 1 N/m2
Standard atmosphere : 1 atm=760 mmHg=760 torr=101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar 2. Volume (V)- space occupied by the gas (unit: L, mL) 1 dm3 = 1L; 1 cm3 = 1 mL 3. Temperature (T)- expressed in K, °C or °F K= °C + 273.15
Absolute zero temp= 0 K= -273.15°C molecules stop moving Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP): 0°C, 1 atm Standard Ambient Temperature and Pressure (SATP): 25°C, I bar 4. no. of moles of gas (n) Gas Laws 1. Boyle’s Law- Robert Boyle - the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const temp is inversely proportional to the pressure (V α 1/P)
does not apply to liquids and solids applies only at moderate or low P and moderate or high T P1V1 = P2V2
2. Charle’s Law- Jacques Charles (1746-1823) - the volume occupied by a given mass of gas at const pressure is directly proportional to temp (V α T) Charles is the first person to fill a balloon with hydrogen gas (Made the first solo balloon flight) V1 = V2 T1
T2
3. Avogadro’s Law- Amadeo Avogadro (1776-1856) - for a gas at const T and P, V is directly related to the no. of moles of gas (V α n) Molar volume- one mole of any gas at STP occupies a volume of 22.4 L 202
V1 = V2 n1
n2
4. Gay-Lussac’s law- the pressure occupied by a given mass of gas at const volume is directly proportional to temp (P α T) P1 = P2 T1
T2
5. Combined gas law (PV)/T = k, hence (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2 6. Ideal Gas Law PV= nRT Where P = Pressure (atm) V = Volume (L) n = no. of moles (mol) R = Universal gas constant= 0.0821 L-atm/mol-K T = Temperature (K) Daltons’s Law of Partial Pressures For a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure exerted is the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert if it were alone. Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + … + Pn Where P1, P2 and P3 are partial pressures of the gas each gas would exert if it were alone in the container. Graham’s Law of Effusion - Thomas Graham (1805-1869) “ The rates of effusion of 2 different gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their molar masses.” Effusion -Escape of gas particles from their container through a tiny orifice or pinhole. For 2 gases A and B: Rate of effusion of A Rate of effusion of B
=
√MMB √MMA 203
SOLUTIONS -homogeneous solutions Components: • SOLUTE – substance being dissolved; present in smaller amount • SOLVENT – the dissolving medium; present in larger amount Solubility - The maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature Types of Solutions: • •
DILUTE SOLUTION – relatively little solute present CONCENTRATED SOLUTION – relatively large amount of solute present
Types of Solutions based on amount of solute dissolved: • UNSATURATED – contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved • SATURATED – contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved • SUPERSATURATED – contains greater than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved Concentration- The amount of solute present in a given quantity of solvent or solution Ways of Expressing Solution Concentration 1. Molarity, M = moles of solute/ L of solution 2. Mass Percent or Weight Percent = (g solute/ g solution) x 100% 3. Mole Fraction, X = moles of a component/moles of solution = moles solute/ (moles of solute + moles of solvent) 4. Molality, m = moles solute/ kg solvent FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY 1. Structure effects “Like dissolves like” In general, substances that have similar IMFA have strong solute-solvent interactions and tend to form solutions.” 2. Pressure • Affects solutions containing gases • Higher pressure, higher solubility of a gas in liquid 3. Temperature For solid solute and liquid solvent:
204
• For an endothermic dissolution: higher temperature, higher solubility • For an exothermic dissolution: higher temperature, lower solubility For gas solute and liquid solvent: • Increasing temperature, lower solubility Stoichiometry in solutions: Relate mole of reactant to mole of another reactant Relate mole of reactant to mole of product Relate mole of product to mole of another product makes use of balanced chemical equation always convert to mole since the balanced equation is in terms of mole. DILUTION – procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one. M1V1
=
M2V2 where M – molarity and V- volume
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES - Solution properties that depend on the amount of solute present and not on the nature of the solute 1. Vapor Pressure Lowering - The presence of a non-volatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solvent 2. Boiling Point ELevation - The presence of a non-volatile solute increases the boiling point of a solution BPsolution – BPsolvent = Kb m
where Kb is the boiling point elevation constant m is the molality
3. Freezing Point Depression - The presence of a non-volatile solute decreases the freezing point of a solution FPsolvent – FPsolution = Kf m
where Kf is the freezing point depression constant m is the molality
4. Osmotic Pressure - Pressure required to stop osmosis Osmosis - selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one 205
Semi-permeable membrane - - Allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the passage of solute molecules π = MRT
Where π = osmotic pressure M = molarity of solution R = gas constant T = Kelvin temp.
ACIDS AND BASES Arrhenius Definition (Svante Arrhenius, 1859-1927) Acid - substance that when dissolved in water, increases [H+] Base - substance that when dissolved in water, increases [OH-] Bronsted-Lowry Definition (J.N. Bronsted and T.M. Lowry, 1923) Acid – a proton donor Base - a proton acceptor Conjugate base – product formed when an acid loses a proton Conjugate acid- product formed when a base accepts a proton Monoprotic acid – donates 1 mole H+ per mole of acid Polyprotic acid – donates more than 1 mole H+ per mole of acid Amphiprotic - Substance that can act either as a proton donor or proton acceptor Kw = [H3O+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14 pH = -log [H3O+] pOH = -log [OH-] pH + pOH = 14 Strong Acids HCl HI HNO3 Strong Bases
HBr HClO4 H2SO4 (1st ionization only)
Hydroxides of Groups 1 and 2 Weak Acids and Bases – ionizes to small extent The larger the Ka (ionization constant of acid), the stronger the acid, greater [H 3O+] The larger the Kb (ionization constant of base), the stronger the base, greater [OH -] 206
Lewis Definition (Gilbert Newton Lewis, 1875-1946) Base – a substance that can donate an e- pair Acid – a substance that can accept an e- pair Titration -
a neutralization reaction a solution is gradually added to another solution until the solute of the first solution has completely reacted with the solute of the second solution Indicator – an organic compound that changes color depending on the pH e.g. phenolphthalein
colorless – acidic faint pink – neutral pink – basic
Equivalence Point- the point at which the solute of the first solution has completely reacted with the solute of the other solution Endpoint – approximates the equivalence point. It is very close to the equivalence point. Standardization – it is the process of determining the concentration of a solution using a standard solution. The solution has a known concentration. Titrant- the solution usually placed on the buret. This is usually the solution of known concentration.
Analyte- the solution of unknown concentration usually placed in the Erlenmeyer flask. BUFFERS - A solution that resists drastic changes in pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added. Components: A weak acid and its conjugate base (in salt form) OR A weak base and its conjugate acid (in salt form) pKa = - log Ka pKb = - log Kb Henderson-Hasselbach equation:
pH = pKa + log [base]/[acid]
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM - The state in which the forward and backward reactions continue to occur but the concentrations of all reactants and products remain constant with time. Characteristics: 207
1. Dynamic Situation – the forward and backward reactions continue to exist 2. Balance - the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction 3. Law of Mass Action – reactions in equilibrium can be expressed in a Definite Mathematical Expression For a general equation: aA + bB
cC + dD
Keq = [C]c [D]d / [A]a[B]b
where Keq is the equilibrium constant [ ] molar concentration
In the expression, only aqueous and gaseous substances are included. Solids and liquids are not included since their concentrations are relatively constant. Keq = Kc
Kc is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in molar concentration
Kp = Kc (RT)ng
Kp is the equilibrium constant when substances are expressed in their partial pressures R is the universal gas constant and T is the temperature in Celsius ng is the difference between the number of moles of gaseous particles of products and reactants
Keq > 1, at equilibrium, reaction system consist mostly of products -shift to the right - very large Keq: reaction goes to completion
Keq < 1, at equilibrium, reaction system consist mostly of reactants -shift to the left - reaction does not occur to a significant extent Le Chateler’s Principle -Henry Louis Le Chatelier (1850-1936) - If a change in conditions (a “stress”) is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium position will shift in a direction that tends to reduce that change in conditions. Factors Affecting Equilibria 1. Change in concentration -
If a reactant or product is added to a system at equilibrium, the system will shift away from the added component. - If a reactant or product is removed, the system will shift toward the removed component. 2. Change in pressure 208
affects only system involving gases Three ways to change the pressure of gaseous systems at a given temperature: a. Add or remove a gaseous reactant or product at constant volume- same effect as change in concentration b. Add an inert gas (not involved in the reaction) at constant volume – increase in total pressure but has no effect on concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants or products c. Change the volume of the container – when the volume of the container holding a gaseous system is reduced, the system responds by reducing its own volume. This is done by decreasing the total no. of gaseous molecules in a system 3. Change in temperature 1. Keq value changes with temperature 2. Energy is treated as a reactant (endothermic) or product (exothermic) 3. If energy (heat) is added, the equilibrium will shift to the direction which consumes the added energy 4. Catalyst - Speeds up both the forward and backward reactions - Equilibrium is achieved more rapidly but the equilibrium amounts are unchanged - Therefore, has no effect on equilibria CHEMICAL KINETICS The area of chemistry concerned with the speeds or rates at which a chemical reaction occurs Collision Theory- Chemical reactions occur as a result of collisions between reacting molecules. For a reaction to procede, reacting particles must collide effectively to enable outer shell electrons to interact. Collisions to be effective, must be with enough energy to overcome repulsive forces between electrons surrounding the nuclei of atoms. Activation Energy (E a) The threshold energy that must be overcome to produce a chemical reaction Transition State or Activated Complex A temporary species formed by the reactant molecules as a result of the collision before they form the product. FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION RATES 1. Concentration – higher concentration, higher reaction rate; more molecules, more collisions 2. Temperature
209
- Higher temperature, more collisions with high energy, higher reaction rate 3. Catalyst - A substance that increases the reaction rate without itself being consumed. - hastens the reaction by providing a path with lower activation energy thus less energy is needed for a reaction to proceed 4. Pressure - affects gaseous systems - higher pressure, more collisions; higher reaction rate THERMOCHEMISTRY • Study of heat changes in chemical reactions • Thermal energy transferred between 2 bodies that are at different temperatures • Units: 1 calorie = 4.184 J System A specific part of the universe that is of interest Surrounding The rest of the universe outside the system Exothermic Process : Q= (-) - Heat is transferred from the system to the surroundings Endothermic Process: Q = (+) - Heat is transferred from the surroundings to the system LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 1. First Law of Thermodynamics - Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created nor destroyed.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics - In any spontaneous process, there is always an increase in the entropy (disorder) of the universe - The entropy of the universe is increasing • • • • •
SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – occurs without outside intervention (given the right conditions) NON-SPONTANEOUS PROCESS – can occur as long as they receive some sort of outside assistance G < 0 (negative) – SPONTANEOUS G > 0 (positive) – NON- SPONTANEOUS G = 0 (zero) – at equilibrium
210
G = H -TS CALORIMETRY - Measurement of heat changes • CALORIMETER – a closed container used to measure heat changes Specific Heat Capacity (Cp) • The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of the substance by 1oC. • An intensive property Heat Capacity (S) • The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity of a substance by 1oC • An extensive property • S = m Cp where m = mass Amount of Heat, Q Q = mCpT
where m is mass and T is final temperature – initial temperature
If Q is positive, the process is endothermic. If Q is negative, the process is exothermic. Note:
Qsys = - Qsurr
OXIDATION – REDUCTION (REDOX) REACTION - Electron transfer reactions HALF- REACTION Shows the electrons involved in a redox reaction a. Oxidation half-reaction Half-reaction that involves loss of electrons REDUCING AGENT (Reductant) – donates e-’s b. Reduction half-reaction Half-reaction that involves gain of electrons OXIDIZING AGENT (Oxidant) – accepts e-’s Mnemonics: LEORA –Loss of Electron, Oxidation, Reducing Agent GEROA- Gain of Electron, Reduction, Oxidizing Agent Disproportionation Reaction - same substance on the reactant side is oxidized and reduced Comproportionation Reaction 211
- same substance on the product side is oxidized and reduced Oxidation State - A concept that provides a way to keep track of electrons in redox reaction according to certain rules. RULES & CONVENTIONS FOR DETERMINATION OF OXIDATION STATES Fundamental Rules: 1. The sum of the oxidation state for all atoms in the formula for an electrically neutral compound is zero. 2. The oxidation state for any element in the free or uncombined state is zero. 3. The oxidation state for an ion is the same as its charge. Special Convention 1. In all hydrogen compounds, the oxidation state for H is +1. Exception: in hydrides where H is –1 2. In all oxygen compounds, the oxidation state for O is –2. Exception: in peroxides where O is –1 3. In all halides, the oxidation state for the halogens is –1. 4. In all sulfides, the oxidation state for sulfur is –2. 5. In binary compounds, the element with the greatest attraction for electrons is assigned a negative oxidation state equal to its charge in its ionic compound.
Electrochemistry - Area of chemistry that deals with the interconversion of electrical and chemical energy
Cell
Electrochemical Cell/ Voltaic Cell/ Galvanic •
The experimental apparatus for generating electricity through the use of spontaneous redox reaction.
a
Parts: Anode 212
• Electrode at which oxidation occurs • Negative (-) terminal • Electrons leave Cathode • Electrode at which reduction occurs • Positive (+) terminal • Electrons enters What occurs? • Electrons flow from anode to cathode in the external circuit. • Oxidation occurs at the anode, anions flow toward the anode within the cell • Reduction occurs at the cathode, cations flow toward the cathode within the cell Anolyte – where anode is immersed Cathoyte- where cathode is immersed Salt Bridge – maintains the neutrality External Wire- pathway for electron flow Voltmeter • •
Measures the cell potential Gives positive readings in volts
Cell Representation or Diagram •
Anode │ Reducing species (oxidized form) ║ oxidizing species (reduced form) │cathode Where │- boundary between different phases (e.g. electrode and solution) ║- boundary between half-cell compartments (e.g. salt bridge)
Mnemonics: ABC anode- bridge- cathode CELL POTENTIAL / CELL VOLTAGE / ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf or E) • The difference in electrical potential between the anode and the cathode • Higher cell potential, higher energy given off by e-’s, strong tendency to generate electric current • 1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb • 1V = 1J/C • Energy (J) = charge(C) x cell potential (V) E0 cell positive spontaneous process For reactions in which reactants and products are in their standard states, Go = -nFEocell Go
Eocell
Spontaneity 213
-
+
spontaneous
at equilibrium
+
-
non-spontaneous
Note: Higher reduction potential higher tendency to undergo reduction Higher oxidation potential higher tendency to undergo oxidation Electrolytic Cell • •
Electrical energy is used to cause a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to occur ELECTROLYTIC CELL is the apparatus used.
1. Two electrodes share the same compartment 2. Has a single electrolyte 3. The conditions are usually far from the standard : gas pressures are rarely close to 1 atm and solutions are not 1 M. Battery withdraws e-’s from the anode and pushes them to the cathode. Anode where oxidation occurs; positive Cathode where reduction occurs; negative Electron flows from anode to cathode Anions go to the anode and cations go to cathode E0cell is negative non-spontaneous
CORROSION conversion of metal to its metal oxide Rusting – corrosion of iron ORGANIC CHEMISTRY -
study of carbon and its compounds; chemistry of the hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen) and their derivatives. Hydrocarbons: 1. Alkane – CnH2n + 2 - all single bonds 2. Alkene – CnH2n - double bond between carbon and hydrogen is present 214
3. Alkyne – CnH2n - 2 - triple bond between carbon and hydrogen is present Aromatic cyclic derivative Aliphatic open-chain Oxygen Containing 1. Alcohol (R-OH) 2. Ethers (R-O-R) 3. Carboxylic Acids (RCOOH) 4. Esters (RCOOR) 5. Aldehydes (RCOH) 6. Ketone (RCOR) Others: 1. alkyl halides (RX) where X is either F, Cl, Br, I 2. amines (RNH2) 3. amides (RCONH2) NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES Alkanes are named by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system, which uses a systematic set of rules. Many also have non-systematic common or trivial names that are still in use. Common Names At a time when relatively few organic compounds were known, it was customary to name new compounds at the whim of their discoverers. Urea was so named because it was isolated from urine. Morphine, a painkiller, was named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams. Barbituric acid, a tranquilizer, was named by its discoverer after his friend Barbara. These older names for organic compounds are now called common or trivial names; many of these names are still widely used in the chemical literature and in commerce. In the common nomenclature, the total number of carbon atoms in an alkane, regardless of their arrangement, determines the name. The first three alkanes are methane, ethane and propane. For alkanes beyond propane, certain prefixes are used to differentiate the different structural isomers.
The prefix normal or n- is used to indicate that all carbons are joined in a continuous chain. 215
The prefix iso- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain terminates in a (CH3)2CH- group The prefix neo- is used to indicate that one end of an otherwise continuous chain terminates in (CH3)3C- group
THE IUPAC System The system of nomenclature so devised is presently known as the IUPAC system. Systematic names or organic compounds consist of three main parts: Prefix – stem – suffix The stem indicates the number of carbon atoms in the backbone or parent chain of the molecules. The parent chain is the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms. Backbone
Stem
Backbone
Stem
C1
Met-
C11
Undec-
C2
Eth-
C12
Dodec-
C3
Prop
C13
Tridec-
C4
But-
C14
Tetradec-
C5
Pent-
C15
Pentadec-
C6
Hex-
C16
Hexadec-
C7
Hept-
C17
Heptadec-
C8
Oct-
C18
Octadec-
C9
Non-
C19
Nonadec-
C10
Dec-
C20
Eicos-
The suffix identifies the type or class of the compound. For alkane, the suffix is –ane. Attached to the backbone are the side-chains or substituents. The substituents present are indicated by the prefix. In alkanes, the side-chains are called alkyl groups, which are derived from alkanes through the removal of one hydrogen atom. They are named by changing –ane ending of the parent alkane to –yl. Steps: 1. Locate the parent chain a. Find the longest continuous chain present in the molecule and use the name of that chain as the parent name. 216
b. If there are two different chains of equal length, choose the one with the larger number of branch points as the parent chain. 2. Number the carbon atoms in the parent chain so that the substituents are given the lowest position numbers. 3. Identify the substituents and the position of the carbon atoms to which they are attached. a. If there are two substituents on the same carbon, assign them both the same number. b. There must always be as many numbers in the name as there are substituents. 4. Write the name of the compound by first arranging all substituents in alphabetical order and preceeding the name of each substituent by the position number and then adding the name of the parent chain; use hyphens to separate the different prefixes and commas to separate numbers. a. If the same alkyl group occurs more than once as a substituent, indicate by prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. However, do not use these prefixes for alphabetizing purposes. 5. Prefixes such as cyclo, neo- and iso- are included in alphabetizing substituents, while hyphenated prefixes such as tert-, sec-, n- are ignored.
e.g.
2,6-dimethyloctane For alkenes The same as alkanes with some modifications: a. The parent chain must contain the double bond. b. The parent chain is named by changing the –ane ending of the corresponding alkane to –ene and indicating the position of the double bond by the lowest number possible. c. The carbons bearing the substituents are also given the lowest numbers possible, but the double bonds takes precedence. For alkynes The rules are the same as for naming of alkenes, except that the ending –yne replaces –ene Biochemistry
217
Polymers
Building Blocks
Protein
amino acids
Carbohydrates
monosaccharides
Nucleic Acids
nucleotides
Lipids
fatty acids + glycerol
Saccharides – Sugars Monosaccharide one unit Disaccharide two units of monosaccharide Glycogen stored food in animals Starch stored food in plants Cellulose supporting framework of plants Nucleotides Components 1. Nitrogenous Base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil) 2. Sugar moiety 3. phosphate group DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid RNA – ribonucleic acid
Physics A. Vector and Scalar Scalar quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude only Examples: a) Mass d) Area b) Time e) Distance c) Temperature Vector quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude and direction
218
Examples:
a) Force d) Acceleration b) Velocity e) Displacement c) Weight An arrow is used to represent a vector
Parts of the arrow a) arrowhead – indicates the direction of the vector b) length of the arrow – represents the magnitude of the vector c) Tail – represents the origin of the vector Resultant vector – sum/difference of two or more vectors which will give the same effect as the original vectors. Process of finding the resultant vector a) addition – if vectors have the same direction Example: Kelly walks 2 meters to the east. After 10 seconds, he continued walking 3 meters to the same direction. What is his displacement? D = 2m + 3m = 5m to the east Using an arrow, 2m
3m
or
5m
b) Subtraction – if vectors are acting on opposite directions. The resultant vector takes the direction of the larger vector. Example: A ball was tossed upward from the building and reached the height of 5m above the building. It the moved downwards, traveling 10m until it hits the ground. D = -10m + 5m = -5m Using an arrow,
5m
10m
or
15m
c) Pythagorean Theorem – if vectors are acting at a right angle with one another
219
Example: Marivic first walks 2km north before proceeding 1.5 km east.What is her displacement?
D
2 1.5 2
2
D = 2.5 km Using an arrow,
1.5km
2km 2.5km d) Component Method – if several vectors are acting on different directions, x and y component are mathematically added to find the resultant vector. Example: An airplane flies in a northeasterly direction at 100kph at the same time that there is a wind blowing at 20kph to the northwest. What is the resultant velocity of the plane? X-components: Vxplane = +Vplane cos 45о = 70.71kph Vxwind = -Vwind cos45 о = -14.14kph Y-components: Vyplane = +Vplane sin45 о = 70.71kph Vywind = +Vwind sin 45 о = 14.14kph Resultant Velocity Vx = Vxplane + Vxwind
220
= 70.71 – 14.14 = 56.57 kph Vy = Vyplane + Vywind = 70.71 + 14.14 = 84.85kph B. Mechanics Motion – change in position of an object relative to other objects that are considered at rest.
Linear Motion Distance vs. Displacement Distance – total path length traveled by a body. Displacement – change in position of an object. It represents the straight line path between the starting and end points. Example: a. Jen travels 5km to work and back. What is the distance she travels? What is the displacement? Distance = 5km + 5km = 10km Displacement = 5km – 5km =0 *since there is no change in position, her displacement is zero b. Rocky walks 20 km due north from his camp. Late in the afternoon, he walks back 11km south along the same path. i. What is his total displacement from the camp? ii. What is the total distance he traveled? i.
Displacement = 20km + (-11km) = 9km due north
ii.
Distance = 20km + 11km = 31 km
Speed vs. Velocity 221
Speed – measure of how fast an object travels o
Average speed – ration of total distance traveled to the time needed to cover that distance.
AverageSpeed
TotalDis tan ceTravelled ElapsedTim e
Example: It takes a school bus 1 hour to travel 20km. What is its average speed?
AverageSpeed o
20km km 20 1hr hr
Instantaneous speed – is the speed at particular instance in time
Instantaneous Speed
x x 2 x1 t t 2 t1
Example: What is the speed of a car that covered 150km in two hours? Instantaneous Speed o
x 150km 0 km 75 t 2hrs 0 hr
Velocity – rate of motion with direction
Velocity
displaceme nt time
Example: Rocky drives a distance of 80km in 2 hours towards the north direction. What is his velocity? Given: d = 80km t = 2hrs Find: v Solution:
v
80km 2hrs
v 40
km north hrs 222
Acceleration – rate of change of velocity
o
Acceleration
ChangeOfVelocity time
Example: A driver steadily increases his velocity from 30
km km to 60 in 2 hours. What is his hr hr
acceleration?
60 a
km km 30 hr hr 15 km 2hrs hr 2
Graphs relating displacement, velocity and acceleration
x
v
a
t
t
Zero acceleration, Zero velocity Where
x = displacement v = velocity a = acceleration t = time
223
t
x
v
a
t
t
t
Zero acceleration, constant velocity Where
x = displacement v = velocity a = acceleration t = time
x
v
a
t
t
constant acceleration, increasing velocity Where
x = displacement v = velocity a = acceleration t = time
Ideal linear motion
a) Uniform Motion – motion with constant velocity Δx = vt
224
t
Where Δx = x – xo v = velocity t = time Example: What is the displacement of a car moving at a constant velocity of 20m/s after 2 seconds? Given: v = 20m/s t = 2s Find: Δx Solution: Δx = vt Δx = 20m/s (2s) Δx = 40m b) Uniform Accelerated Motion – motion with constant acceleration
V V f
X
o
at
X V o
V V 2
2
f
o
o
t
at
2
2
2aX
x (Vf Vo)t 2 Where: Vf = final velocity Vo = initial velocity a = acceleration t = time 225
X = final position Xo = initial position ΔX = X – Xo,displacement
Example: A cyclist is moving with a velocity of 2m/s and accelerates to 4m/s after 2 seconds. What is the acceleration of the cyclist? Given: Vf = 4m/s Vo = 2m/s t=2s Find: a Solution:
V V f
o
at
a (V f V o ) t a (4m/s 2m / s) 2s a = 1 m/s2 c) Freefall - a good example of uniform accelerated motion - one dimensional motion where the moving object is only under the influence of gravity - gravitational acceleration is equal to -9.8m/s2
V V f
o
gt
Y Y o V o t
V V 2
2
f
o
gt
2
2
2 gY 226
Y (Vf Vo)t 2 Where: Vf = final velocity Vo = initial velocity g = -9.8m/s2, gravitational acceleration t = time Y = final position Yo = initial position ΔY = Y – Yo, displacement Example: A ball is dropped from a building without an initial velocity. Find the velocity of the ball after 5 seconds. Given: T=5s Vo = 0 Find: Vf Solution: Vf = gt = (-9.8m/s2) 5s = -49m/s
Example: A mango falls from a tree. How far does it fall after 0.5 seconds? Given: t = 0.5 s Vo = 0 Find: ΔY Solution: 227
Y V o t
gt
2
2
9.8 m (0.5s)2 2 s Y 2 ΔY = -19.6 m
d) Projectile Motion – curved motion of an object that is projected into the air and acted upon by the gravitational force of the earth - a combination of uniform motion and freefall Projectile – an object thrown into the air that is allowed to move freely and is influenced only by gravity
h
Vo
RANGE
Range – horizontal distance covered by a projectile Time of flight – time in which the projectile is up in the air Trajectory – curve traced by the path of the projectile Maximum height, h – the vertical displacement traveled by the projectile in its trajectory
228
Conditions of Projectile Motion throughout the flight: a) Neglect the effect of air resistance to the body b) The horizontal and vertical motions are independent of each other. Separate the displacement and velocity to its x and y components. Along the horizontal: i) ii) iii)
the x component of the velocity is constant throughout the flight the horizontal displacement x, follows uniform motion Formula along the horizontal is the same as uniform motion
Along the vertical: i)
the y component of the velocity acts as freefall and thus, only affected by the gravitational acceleration ii) The velocity’s sign is positive (+) for upward motion while for downward motion, it is negative (). iii) Upon hitting the ground, its velocity is always equal to zero. iv) The time required for the projectile to reach its maximum height from its firing point is equal to the time that the projectile will reach the same height of its firing point from the maximum height. v) Formula along the vertical is the same as freefall When vertical displacement is at its maximum height: i) the x component of the velocity is constant ii) the y component of the velocity is equal to zero iii) the acceleration is still equal to g,-9.8m/s2 Example: A stone is thrown with an initial horizontal velocity of 10m/s from the top of a tower 200m high. Where is the stone after 2s? When will it hit the ground? What is its speed just before it hits the ground? Given: Vx = 10m/s dy = 200m t = 2s Find: dx after 2s, t, Vf Solution: i)
Δx = vt Δx = (10m/s)(2s) 229
Δx = 20m
ii)
Y Y o V o t
gt
2
2
Since there is no initial velocity along the vertical and the top of the building is the reference point, Yo and Vyo is equal to zero.
t
2Y g
t
2(200m) 9.8 m 2
s
t = 6.38 s
iii)
V V f
V
f
V
f
o
gt
0 (9.8 m
2
s )(6.38s)
62.52m / s
C. Newton’s Laws of Motion - explains why objects move, and define the relationship between the external forces acting on a body – as well as between two or more interacting bodies and the motion that arises from the action of these forces. 1. First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia) “Every material continues to be at rest if it is at rest or in uniform motion if it is in motion, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces acted upon it.” Inertia – is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion Mass – is a measure of an object’s inertia Weight – force acted upon an object due to gravity Force – a push or a pull (e.g. gravitational force, friction, normal forces, electromagnetic force, etc.) - a vector quantity with SI unit of Newton (N = kg-m/s2) 2. Second Law of Motion (Law of acceleration) “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.”
230
a
F m
F = ma * Force and mass have opposite effect on acceleration. The more massive the object, the less is the acceleration. This means that acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass. The greater force will result to greater the acceleration. Force is directly proportional to the acceleration of an object. Example: Neglecting friction, what constant force will give a mass of 50kg an acceleration of 5m/s 2? Given: m = 50kg a = 5m/s2
Find: F Solution: F = ma F = (50kg)( 5m/s2) F = 250 kg-m/s2 or 250N 3) Third Law of Motion (Law of action-reaction) “Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object, exerts an equal and opposite force.” Hence, if your hand exerts a force of 20N in a wall, the wall will also exert a force of 20N in your hand D. Momentum and Impulse Momentum Momentum is a physical quantity obtained when the mass of an object is multiplied to its velocity. It has the same direction as the velocity. This means that an object with large mass and velocity has high momentum. Accordingly, an object at rest has a momentum equal to zero. p = mv
Where:
231
p = momentum m = mass v = velocity Example: A truck full of sand with a mass of 40,000kg travels east with a velocity of 50m/s. What is the truck’s momentum? Given: m = 40,000kg v = 50m/s Find: p Solution: p = mv p = (40000kg) (50m/s) p = 2,000,000 kg-m/s Impulse Impulse is a vector quantity that has the same direction as the force. It is equal to the product of force and time. It is also associated with the change of momentum.
J mv
J mv mv ma F t t t J Ft Where: J = impulse F = Force Δt = change in time m = mass v = velocity
232
Example: A bat hits the baseball. The bat and the baseball remain in contact for 0.005 seconds. The 0.1kg ball leaves the bat with a velocity of 100m/s. What is the average force of the bat on the baseball? Given: t = 0.005s m = 0.1kg v = 100m/s Find: F Solution:
F F
mv mv
t (0.1x100) 0 0.005
F 2000N Law of Conservation of Momentum
“The total momentum of a system remains constant if the net external forces acting on the system are equal to zero.”
before
mv after mv
As stated, the total linear momentum of the system does not change. This means that if you add all the momenta, you will get the same result even if the objects are colliding with each other Collision – any string interaction between two bodies that lasts a relatively short time Two types of Collision i) Elastic collision – after the collision, the objects is still separatd from each other ii) Inelastic collision – after the collision, the objects move as one unit External Forces – Forces exerted on any part of the system by any body outside the system E. Work, Energy, Power Work – the product of force and displacement
W F x cos
233
Where: W = work F = force Δx = displacement NOTE: A force does no work if it is perpendicular to the displacement Example: A 100N block lies on a frictionless surface. A force of 20N was applied horizontally where the block had moved 5m. Find the work done by the force and weight of the block. Given: Weight of the block = 100N Force applied = 20N Displacement = 5m Find: Work by the force and weight Solution:
W
force
W
force
W
force
i)
ii)
F x cos 20 N 5m cos 0 100 Nm 100 Joules
W
weight
W
weight
W
weight
F x cos
100 0 cos 90 0
The work done by the weight is equal to zero since it is perpendicular to the displacement. Energy – capacity to do work - a scalar quantity Types of Mechanical Energy
234
a) Potential Energy – The energy stored on an object due to its position. i)
Gravitational Potential Energy
PE
grav
mgh
Where: PE = Potential Energy m = mass g = gravitational acceleration h = height ii)
Elastic Potential – energy stored on an elastic material due to its stretching or compressing
PE
s
1 2 k x 2
Where: PE = Potential Energy k = force constant of the spring Δx = extension/compression of the spring b) Kinetic Energy – energy of an object in motion
KE
1 2m
v
2
Where: KE = Kinetic energy m = mass v = velocity Practice Test
1. Which is not considered as adaptive mechanism of living things? a. Modification of body parts to suit the environment. b. Presence of specialized structures like thorns and fins. c. Possession of camouflage features like color, pattern or shape. d. Reproduction for the preservation of a certain species.
235
2. Biologists are at present involved in gene manipulation by altering the genes in nuclei. Which aims seem to be the most important of such manipulation? a. to cure ancient genetic diseases like cancer b. to prolong life c. to create new types of agricultural plants and animals d. to make significant changes in man himself 3. Which chemical substance produced by the body regulates and coordinates the functions and activities of bodily organ? a. gene b. Deoxyribonucleic acid c. hormone d. enzyme 4. Which endocrine abnormality is characterized by dwarfness, low intelligence and sex immaturity? a. myxedema b. cretinism c. tetany d. acromegaly 5. What is the present connotation of symbiosis? a. a give and take relationship of organism b. any type of relationship between two dissimilar organisms living together c. a one- sided relationship between two species d. neutral relationship that exist between two organisms 6. Living things are classified either as aerobic or anaerobic as they grow or metabolize in the presence or absence of: a. carbon dioxide b. nitrogen c. water d. oxygen 7. What is the structural difference between plants and animals? a. Plant cells have plastids but animal cells do not. b. Plant cells have a stiff cell wall of cellulose but animal cells do not. c. Animal cells have centriole but the cells of higher plants do not. d. Plant cells have only a thin membrane but animals do not. 8. Only living things can respond to stimuli, to physical and chemical changes in their environment. Such a characteristic is called: a. metabolism b. irritability c. movement d. specific organization 9. The preservation of specie is made possible through: a. reproduction b. adaptation c. metabolism 236
d. growth 10. Which process involves in the movement of dissolved molecules (solute) through a differentially permeable membrane? a. diffusion b. osmosis c. Brownian movement d. dialysis 11. Which refers to the earth’s entire zone of air, land and water which occupied by living things? a. biosphere b. biome c. bioassay d. biomass 12. Which body organ is responsible for the removal of waste from the blood and body fluids? a. liver b. pancreas c. kidney d. large intestine 13. What is meant by excretion? a. Elimination of waste and undigested food from the anus. b. Removal from the cells and blood streams of substances which are no further use in the body. c. Release from the cell of some substance that is utilized elsewhere in some bodily process. d. Absorption of soluble food by the body cells. 14. The clotting of the blood is essentially the function of: a. red blood cells b. white corpuscles c. plasma d. hemoglobin 15. All living things have a tendency to maintain uniformity or stability in their internal environment called: a. anabolism b. metabolism c. epigenesist d. homeostasis 16. What is an ecosystem? a. A basic unit that shows interaction between living things and their environment. b. A recognizable unit which shows plant and animal distribution as influenced primarily by climate. c. A fundamental unit that shows various types of relationship among organism. d. A distinct unit that shows how physical factor can affect other abiotic components in the environment. 17. Which plant structure transports organic nutrients both up and down the stem and roots? a. xylem b. vascular bundle c. parenchyma d. phloem 18. Under what condition does a living organism live best or has the greatest chance of survival? a. maximal b. minimal c. optimum d. standard 19. Which traps light energy from the sun for use in the photosynthesis? 237
a. carbon dioxide b. water c. chlorophyll d. oxygen 20. Smoking cigarettes: a. causes ulcer b. decreases the vital capacity of the stomach c. leads to emphysema and lung cancer d. leads to abnormal life 21. Blood cells and plasma factors are important: a. immune defense b. invaders 22. A spinal nerve is:
c. external defenses
d. internal defenses
a.motor nerve b. sensory nerve c. neuron d. mixed nerve 23. The anterior pituitary stimulates the: a. motor coordination b. consciousness
c. sense reception
d. homeostasis
24. What do all methods of birth control have in common? a. they all use some device b. they are all expensive c. they interrupt lovemaking d. they prevent the egg from coming in contact with the sperm 25. Pregnancy begins: a. upon successful implantation b. during the follicular phase
c. when the egg is fertilized d. when ovulation occurs
26. The fact that many insects are now immune to DDT is an example of: a. natural selection b. genetic drift c. geographical isolation d. translocation 27. The nutrient glucose is useful to the body: a. to prevent goiter b. as a source of energy
c. active reabsorption d. during the process of respiration
28. Radiant energy is covered into chemical energy during: a. oxidation b. glycosis c. respiration d. photosynthesis
238
29. Which of the following is not a form of vegetative reproduction? a. regeneration b. budding c. spore formation d. vegetation by runners 30. Nitrogenous waste is produced by the metabolism of: a. fats b. carbohydrates c. proteins
d. starches
31. Which of the following is a reflex act? a. breathing b. blinking
d. sleeping
c. walking
32. In an ecosystem: a. only energy is recycled b. only materials are recycled
c. both materials and energy are recycled d. neither materials nor energy is recycled
33. Distribution of plants is affected by: a. type of soil b. amount of light c. amount of rainfall d. A, B, and C are correct 34. Which decoction contains traces of iron to arrest hemorrhage? a. corn silk b. ampalaya leaves flowers c. gumamela
d. coconut milk
35. Hyperacidity can destroy the lining of the stomach. Which of the following substance can ease the discomfort? a. water therapy b. milk of magnesia c. starch solution d. gelatin 36. Deficiency of carbohydrates is characterized by: a. sluggishness b. pallor c. obesity d. bone deformation 37. Salt as a preservative causes: a. cell shrinkage b. ionization
c. hydrolysis
d. hydration
38. What do you call the practical or industrial application based on scientific principles? a. scientific method b. technology c. theory d. experimentation 239
39. What is the principal cause of earthquakes? a. faulting b. landslides c. nuclear explosions d. volcanic erupt 40. Purification of metals can be done best by: a. filtration b. flotation c. aeration d. electrolysis
LET Reviewer- Social Science Lecture Notes
Peace Education, Human Education & Global Education To address present critical issues, there is a need to revise our teacher education curriculum to make it truly integrated and holistic in content and approach. To do so, we need to identify 3 important areas of concerns:
Peace Education – This area affirms personal and global responsibilities for the promotion of peace, cooperation, disarmament, justice and non-violent resolution of conflict. Human Rights Education – Promotes understanding of Human Rights concepts and values to enable learners to comprehend and transform conditions which give rise to human rights violation. Global Education – Involves learning about those problems and issues which cut across national boundaries and about the interconnectedness of system – cultural, ecological, economic, political, and technological. It also includes citizenship education.
Objectives of Peace Education 1. Knowledge a. Peace – students should investigate different concepts and examples of peace on a variety of levels from personal to global. b. Conflict and Violence – students should study the problems of violence c. Some Peaceful Alternatives disarmament non-violent conflict resolution development based on justice human rights respect human solidarity environmental care 240
d. Ethical and Practical Rationale – students should study the ethical and practical basis for the above-cited peaceful alternatives in order to provide added motivation for learning. 2. Attitudes/Values a. Self-respect b. Respect for others c. Respect for human life/nonviolence d. Global concern e. Ecological concern f. Cooperation g. Openness/Tolerance h. Social Responsibility i. Positive Vision 3. Skills a. Reflection b. Critical Thinking c. Decision-making d. Imagination e. Communication f. Conflict Resolution g. Group Building Principles and Concept About Peace “Since wars begin in the minds of men and women, it is in the minds of woman and men that the defense of peace must be constructed.” Love
self-worth/self-esteem positive self-criticism deep sense of responsibility fidelity/loyalty sense of reconciliation gentleness trust and respect openness concern for others sense of sacrifice courage endurance
Compassion
kindness sensitivity to others needs nurturing moral strength/fortitude goodwill supportiveness
Harmony
241
mutual trusts and understanding cooperation/collaboration sense of belongingness/cultural worth effective communication sense of reconciliation
Tolerance mutual respect respect for personal and cultural differences (unity in diversity) genuine acceptance and accommodation peaceful conflict resolution acceptance and appreciation of diversity of cultures respect for minority groups and foreigners sense of humor, courtesy/cordiality, open-mindedness Caring and Sharing
love concern generosity Interdependence
sense of interconnectedness with others and with creation globalization/nationalization and internationalism sense of subsidiarity non-violence active participation global understanding/mutual respect among nations creative and collective responsibility and cooperation transformational leadership commitment to the future
Empathy
appreciation of the other awareness concern
Spirituality
inner peace belief in one’s material and spiritual development reverence and respect for life commitment to genuine human development confidence in human spirit freedom of thought, conscience and belief
Human Rights Education Human rights is defined as the supreme, inherent and alienable right to life, dignity, and self development. It is concerned with issues on both areas of civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights founded on internationally accepted human rights obligations to which the Philippines government is a state party. (Educator’s Human Rights Handbook, Commission on Human Rights). 242
The Fundamental Principles Underlying The Human Rights Standards Universality – that human rights should be enjoyed by everyone without discrimination as to sex, age, language, religion, or race. Wherever a person is, whether in a rich or poor country, in a tribe, and whoever the person is, a king, queen or pauper, man or woman, old and young s/he can claim such rights. Inviolability – that human rights as an irreducible element of one’s humanity cannot be abrogated or violated unless determined by law and “solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights of other an of meeting the just requirements of the general welfare, morality, and public order in a democratic society.” Interdependence – a person’s well being cannot be enjoyed in a piece meal. Human dignity cannot be taken in increments. This means that certain rights cannot be sacrified in favor of other rights because taken together, these rights make human beings whole. The Different Groups of Rights According to Nature a. Civil Rights – are those rights when the law will enforce at the private individuals for the purpose of securing to them the enjoyment of their means of happiness. Examples are right to life, liberty, and security, freedom to travel, right to due process. b. Political Rights – are those rights which enable us to participate in running the affairs of the government either directly or indirectly. Examples are the right to vote, right to information on matters of public concern and the right initiative, freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly. c. Economic and Social Rights – are those which the law confers by law upon the people to enable them to achieve social and economic development, thereby ensuring them their well being, happiness and financial security. Example: are the right to property, education, and promotion of social justice. d. Cultural Rights – are those rights that ensure the well being of the individual and foster the preservation, enrichment and dynamic evolution of national culture based on the principle of unity in diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expression. According to Recipient Individual Rights – are those being accorded to individuals Collective/Group Rights – are those of the society, those that can be enjoyed only in company with others. According to Source Natural Rights – are rights believed to be based on reason or given by Supreme Being. They existed long before they were recognized by law. Examples of which are right to life, right to property, right to justice, right to freedom, right to peace 243
Legal Rights – are rights recognized by laws. Examples of which are right to habeas corpus, right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, right to bail, etc.
According to Implementation Immediate – are those rights the States can readily implement because these are dependent on the States’ political will such as civil and political rights. Progressive/Incremental – are those rights whose implementation is dependent on availability of the states’ resources and thus can only be enjoyed gradually. Such rights are the social, economic and cultural rights. Human Rights are Guaranteed By: National Human Rights Mechanism: 1.
2.
3.
Legislation – international human rights laws still have to be translated and incorporated into the national laws of States parties. This can be done either through (1) amending and supplementing national laws to suit international laws and (2) promulgating new legal documents. Education and Campaign – much of human rights violations occur because of lack of human rights awareness among the people. Educating state agents such as the police, government officials and public servants is crucial only as an immediate measure to prevent violations of human rights. However, dissemination of human rights in the grassroots and educating the people especially the marginalized is a major requirement for human rights protection and promotion. National Programs of Action – human rights are not juts a compilation of laws, these are a framework for governance, a national vision that must be pursued. Human rights should guide government leaders in formulating policies and programs. The everyday conduct of government activities should be guided by the principles of human rights.
Global Education “Global education involves learning about those problems and issues that cut across national boundaries, and about the interconnectedness of systems—ecological, cultural, economic, political and technological. Global education involves perspective taking—seeing things through the eyes and minds of others—and it means the realization that while individuals and groups may view life differently, they also have common needs and wants.” Global Education involves the:
Study the systems (economic, political, ecological, technological) Study of human values (universal and diverse) Study of persistent problems (war and peace, human rights, environmental issues) Study of global history (development of global systems and human values)
Issues Relevant to Global Education Children’s Rights
244
The Convention on the Rights of the Child is a universally agreed set of non-negotiable standards and obligation which spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere – without discrimination.
Disasters
Reducing human suffering and economic losses caused by natural and technological disasters comes from preparedness and mitigation through policies, education and strategic and rapid responses. Education
Investing in education systems helps build human capital and ensures that people can participate more fully in society. Environment
As the world’s population grows there is more and more pressure on the environment to produce enough food and energy without consuming the resources faster than they can be replaced. Food Security
Providing for the physical, social and economic access by all people at all times to sufficient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. Governance
Effective governance means competent management of a country’s resources in a way that is fair, open, accountable and responsive to people’s needs. HIV/AIDS The HIV/AIDS pandemic represents one of the greatest challenges facing developing countries. Health
Improving the basic health and the quality of health service delivery and addressing the health effects of natural disasters and emergencies are the means of improving the health of people. Human Rights
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights sets forth the human rights and fundamental freedoms of all men and women in all nations, everywhere in the world. Infrastructure
The development and maintenance of essential public services and systems is an important ingredient for sustained economic growth and poverty reduction. Micro credit Small scale business development is an important means of helping individuals out of poverty. Peace building
The support structures and processes which strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into conflict. Poverty Alleviation
245
The Complex web that keeps people poor is being addressed through economic growth and improving governance, education and health. Refugees
Forced to flee their homes because of persecution refugees are a significant group who need international protection as they seek a durable solution to their plight.
Rice
Highlighting the importance of rice as a primary food and income source in many developing countries. Rural Development
The majority of the world’s poor live in rural areas, and are disproportionately dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods, especially resources such as forests and fisheries. Volunteering Many people give their time and skills without pay to make a contribution to assist others. Water Water is the source of life – vital for health, food and ecoomic development. Women
Improving the status of women is not just a women’s issue, but a goal that requires the active participation of both men and women.
Global Citizenship A Global Citizen is Someone Who:
is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen; respects and values diversity; has an understanding of how the world works economically, politically, socially, culturally, technologically, and environmentally; is outraged by social injustice; participates in and contributes to the community at a range of levels from local to global; is willing to act to make the world a more sustainable place; takes responsibility for their actions. The Key Elements of Global Citizenship Knowlegde and Understanding Social justice and equity
understanding of global debates
Diversity
Globalization and interdependence
deeper understanding of cultures and societies complexity of global issues
246
different
Sustainable development
Peace and conflict
understanding of key issues of Agenda 21 lifestyles for a sustainable world complexity of conflict issues and conflict resolution
Skills
Critical thinking
Ability to argue effectively
Ability to challenge injustice and inequalities
Respect for people and things
Co-operation and conflict resolution
handling contentious and complex issues political literacy participating in the relevant political processes campaigning for a more just and equitable world following a personal lifestyle for a sustainable world negotiation conflict resolution
Sense of identity and self-esteem
open-mindedness
Empathy and sense of common humanity
Commitment to social justice and equity
Valuing and respecting diversity
Concern for the environment and commitment to sustainable development
sense of individual and collective responsibility commitment to the eradication of poverty valuing all people as equal and different commitment to sustainable development
Belief that people can make a difference
Values and Attitudes
Economics
247
willingness to work towards a more equitable future
The study that deals with how scarce resources are allocated to maximize the unlimited wants that indibiduals and societies want to fulfill. The study of how individuals and societies choose to use the scarce resources that nature and previous generations have provided. The study of how societies choose to use scarce productive resources that have alternatives uses to produce commodities of various kinds, and to distribute them among different groups. Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and means which have alternative uses (Lionel Robbins, 1935). Economics or political economy is an “inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations” (Adam Smith, 1976). Economics is the science of production. Production is a social force insofar as it channels human activity into useful ends (Karl Marx, 1848).
Elements of an Economic System 1. Resources – which include land, labor and capital 2. Outputs – which can either be consumption goods 3. Capital goods – items which are used to produce other goods and services in the future, rather than being consumed today 4. Processes of production 5. Processes of distribution Branches a. Macroeconomics – the branch of economics that examines the economic behavior of aggregates – income, employment, output, and so on – on a national scale. b. Microeconomics – the branch of economics that examines the functioning of individual industries and the behavior of individual decision-making units, that is, business firms and households. Methods of Economics a. Positive economics – an approach to economics that seeks to understand behavior and the operations of systems without making judgment. It describes what exists and how it works. b. Normative economics – an approach to economics that analyzes outcomes of economic behavior, evaluates them as good or bad, and may prescribe courses of action. Also called “policy economics”. Economics is important to the: a. Individual – as a consumer who wants to maximize satisfaction and minimize expenditure. b. Businessmen – as a producer who wants to maximize profits and minimize costs. c. Government – in providing a high standard of living for the people. Basic Economic Problems 1. What to produce? 2. How to produce? 3. For whom to produce? 4. How much to produce? 5. How much more to produce? Economic Systems
248
1. Capitalist System – an economy in which individual people and firms pursue their own self-interest with any central directions or regulations. This is also known as laissez-faire economy, free enterprise, price mechanism, or free market economy. 2. Command Economy – an economy in which a central authority or agency draws up a plan that establishes what will be produced and when, and makes rules for distribution. 3. Mixed Economy – it is a regulated market economy. In reality, all economies are, to some extent, mixed. It is just a matter of degree of intervention. Factors of Production 1. Land (Natural Resources) – includes all resources found in the sea and on land. Raw materials, landscapes, ports (natural harbor), climatic conditions, geographical location. 2. Labor (Human Factor) – any kind of work, either mental o manual in nature, which has the sole purpose of receiving rewards. 3. Capital (Man-Made) – wealth uesd for production 4. Entrepreneur (Management) – usually the organizer in a company
Price System
Is the mechanism by which producers and consumers transmit information about production to one another. It is referred to as the basic coordination and communication system of a market economy because it helps producers make production decisions and whereby keeps the economy balance.
Market A set of arrangements by which buyers and sellers of a good are in contact to trade that good. Demand The amount of a good buyers want to purchase at different prices. behavior of buyers Quantity Demanded
The amount (number of units) of a product that a households would buy in a given period it if could buy all it wanted at the current market price. Demand Schedule
A table showing how the quantity demanded of some product during a specified period of time changes as the price of that product changes, holding all other determinants of quantity demandes constant.
Demand Curve
A graphical depiction of a demand schedule. It shows how the quantity demanded of some product during a specified period of time will change as the price of that product changes, holding all other determinants of quantity demanded constant. Shortage Excess demand Law of Demand 249
The lower the price, the higher the quantity demanded of a particular commodity. Factors Affecting Demand Price Factor 1. Price of the product itself Non-Price Factors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Fashion, taste, and climate Changes in income Changes in population Changes in the price of related goods Advertisements Introduction of new products Social and economic conditions Festive seasons Speculation
Supply The amount of a good sellers want to sell at different prices. behavior of sellers Quantity Supplied
The amount of a particular product that firm would be willing and able to offer for sale at a particular price during a given time period. Supply Curve A graph illustrating how much of a product a firm will supply at a different price. Surplus Excess supply Law of Supply
The positive relationship between price and quantity supplied: An increase in market price will lead to an increase in quantity supplied, and a decrease in market price will lead to a decrease in quantity supplied. Factors Affecting Supply Price Factor 1. Price of the good itself Non-Price Factors 1. Climatic Conditions 2. Cost of Production 250
3. Technological Advancements 4. Government Policies (e.g. tax, subsidies) 5. Time Period 6. Price of Related Goods (Competitive Supply, Joint Supply) Equilibrium Price The price at which the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied are equal. Market Structures 1. Perfectly Competitive Markets has the following characteristics: a. There are many buyers in the market b. There are many sellers in the market c. Goods are homogeneous and not differentiated d. There must be free entry to and exit from the market e. Both consumers and the producers have perfect knowlegde about the market situation f. There is mobility of factors of production g. No transport cost h. There is independence in decision making i. There is no preferential treatment 2. Monopoly has the following characteristics: a. There is only one single seller but two types of monopoly (Natural and Private Monopoly) b. Many buyers are available c. There are barriers to entry d. The product does not have close substitutes e. An important assumption is that monopolist can only control price or quantity but not both 3. Monopolistic Competition has the following characteristics: a. There are many buyers b. There are many sellers but not as many as in perfect competition c. Products are differentiated d. There is ease of entry and exit, but not as easy as in perfect competition e. Non-price competition exist (ex., advertisements, sales promotion, etc.) f. No perfect knowledge is assumed g. One producer can lower the price without affecting other firms. 4. Oligopoly has the following characteristics: a. There are many buyers in the market b. There are few sellers in the market c. Products sold can either be homogenous or differentiated d. Barries to entry exist but these are not as restrictive as monopoly e. There is interdependency in pricing and output in relation to other firms f. Price can be determined through: price leadership dominant firm cartel collusion Opportunity Cost
The value of the next best alternative that the decision forces the decision-maker to forgo. Rational decision making, be it in industry, government, or households, must be based on opportunity cost calculations. Economic Goods
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Things of value that you can see, touch, and show to others. Economic Services Intangible things that have value but often cannot be seen, touched or shown to others. Taxation
It is an inherent power of the state to impose and collect revenues to defray the necessary expenses of the government. It is a compulsory contribution imposed by a public authority irrespective of the amount of services rendered to the payer in return. It is a compulsory levy on private individuals and organizations by the government to raise revenue to finance expenditures on public goods and services. Purpose of Taxation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
To collect revenue for the government To redistribute income To combat inflation To correct an adverse balance of payments To check consumption of goods which are considered undesirable To protect local/infant industries To influence population trends To improve unfavorable terms of trade To reallocate resources To create a sense of identity
The Four “R” s
Taxation has four main purposes or effects: o Revenue – Taxes raise money to spend on roads, schools and hospitals, and on more indirect government functions like market regulation or justice systems. This is the most widely known function. o Redistribution This means transferring wealth from the richer sections of society to poorer sections. o Repricing Taxes are levied to address externalities: tobacco is taxed, for example, to discourage smoking. o Representation
Theory Basis
Taxation is a necessity and indispensable, for without taxes government cannot function and exist.
It is found in the reciprocal duties of protection and support between the state and its inhabitants. Sources and Origin of Taxation 1. The Constitution 2. Statutes or Presidential Decrees 252
3. Bureau of Internal Revenue regulations 4. Judicial Decisions 5. Provincial, City, Municipal and Barrio Ordinances 6. Observance of International Agreements 7. Administrative Rulings and Opinions Objects of Taxation 1. Persons – whether natural or judicial 2. Property of any kind 3. Transactions, interest and privileges Limitations on the Powers of Taxation 1. Inherent Limitations a. The tax must be for public purpose b. No improper delegation of legislative power to tax c. Exemption of government entities d. Territorial jurisdiction e. Observance of International Law 2. Constitutional Limitations a. Equal protection of the law b. Uniformity rule c. Observance of due process of law d. Non-impairment of obligation of contracts e. Non-imprisonment for non-payment of poll tax f. Non-impairment of religious freedom g. No appropriation for religious purposes h. Property tax exemption i. Non-impairment of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in tax cases Classification of Taxes 1. Progressive Income Tax – the higher the income, the higher the tax rate. 2. Proportional Tax – the tax rate is constant and unaffected by the level of income. 3. Regressive Tax – the higher the income, the lower the tax rate. Types of Taxes A. Direct Taxes 1. The burden cannot be shifted to the third party 2. Direct taxes are based on income and wealth 3. In most cases, direct taxes are progressive in nature 4. Direct taxes are compulsory in nature Examples:
income tax residence tax real state tax immigration tax estate/gift/inheritance tax
B. Indirect Taxes 253
1. The tax burden can be shifted to the third party 2. Indirect taxes are based on expenditures and consumption 3. All indirect taxes are regressive in nature 4. Indirect taxes are optional in the sense that they can be avoided Examples: sales tax import tax VAT/EVAT Characteristics of a Sound Tax System
Efficiency – must generate revenues greater than the amount of money the government must spend to collect taxes. Equity – individuals and groups belonging to the same income bracket must be taxed equally while those belonging to different income groups must be taxed differently. Convenience – to set up measures and procedures that will make it more convenient for taxpayers to pay. Stability – tax system must not bet too ofetn or it will encourage taxpayers to withhold tax payments until a more preferred system is put in place.
Agrarian Reform Program What is Agrarian Reform?
Agrarian Reform is the redistribution of lands to farmers and regular farmworkers who are landless, irrespective of tenurial arrangements. Agrarian reform is not just the transfer of lands, it includes a package of support services: economic and physical infrastructure support services, (credit, extension, irrigation, roads and bridges, marketing facilities) and human resource and institutional development or social infrastructure building and strengthening.
What is a the legal basis for CARP?
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) was passed in 1988 under the administration of President Corazon C. Aquino. The legal basis for CARP is Republic Act 6657 otherwise known as Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) signed by Aquino on June 10, 1988. It is an act instituting a CARP to promote social justice and industrialization, providing the mechanism for its implementation, and for other purposes.
What does CARP cover?
CARP covers all alienable and disposable lands of the public domain devoted to or suitable for agriculture, all lands of the public domain in excess of the specific limits, all other lands owned by the Government devoted to or suitable for agriculture, and all private lands devoted to or suitable for agriculture regardless of the agricultural products raised or that can be raised thereon.
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Cooperatives What is a Cooperative?
A cooperative is a duly registered association of persons with a common bond of interest, who have voluntarily joined together to achieve a lawful common social or economic end, making equitable to contribution to the capital required and accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits of the undertaking in accordance with universally accepted cooperative principle. By forming a cooperative you pool money, human resources and talent to build capital and work together to produce more goods and raise incomes. Through cooperatives, you can look for the other sources of loans at low interest rates of borrowing form informal lenders or users.
What are the Principles of Cooperativism?
The cooperative principles were reformulated by he International Cooperative Alliance in Vienna in 1966 during its 23 Congress: o Voluntarism Each member of a cooperative becomes a member voluntarily and is not restricted by social, political or religious discrimination. o Democracy Coops are democratic organizations with officers and managers elected or appointed in a manner agreed on by members. Each member, no matter the amount of his share, is entitled to one vote. o Limitation of Share Capital Interest Interest on a member share capital is limited so that no person-especially those with money—can have an overwhelming equity in the coop. o Sharing all location of cooperatives surplus or savings Mandates distribution of surplus equitably so that no member, gains at the expense of another. o Provision for the education and training of cooperatives members, officers and employees, and of the general public in the principles and techniques of cooperation o Promotion of cooperation between cooperatives at local, national and international levels. o Concern for community by working for its sustainable development through policies approved by the cooperative members.
Kinds of Cooperative
Credit Cooperative o Promotes thrift and savings among its members and creates funds in order to grant loans for productivity. Consumer Cooperative o The primary purpose is to procure and distribute commodities to member and non-members. Producers Cooperative o Undertakes joint production whether agricultural or industrial.
Service Cooperative 255
o
Engages in medical, and dental care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance, housing, labor, electric lights and power, communication and other services. Multi-Purpose Cooperative o Combines two (2) or more of the business activities of these different types of cooperatives The Categories of Cooperatives According to Membership and Territory: In terms of membership: Primary – the members of which are natural person of legal age; Secondary – the members of which are primeries; Tertiary – the member of which are secondaries upward to one or more apex organizations. Cooperatives whose members are cooperatives are called federations or unions. In terms of territory, cooperatives are categorized according to areas of operation which may not be coincide with the political subdivision of the country. 1. 2. 3.
The General Steps in Forming a Cooperative Six Steps in Setting Up A Cooperative: 1. Get Organized.
You must have at least 15 members. At once determine the common problems you would want to solved and the basic needs you would want provided for through a cooperative. 2. Prepare a general statement called an economic survey. This will help you measure your cooperatives chances of success. 3. Draft the cooperatives by-laws. The by-laws contain the rules and regulation governing the operation of the cooperative. 4. Draft the articles of cooperation.
Indicate the name of the cooperative, its members, terms of existence and other pertinent description about your cooperative. 5. Secure bond of your accountable officers, normally the treasurer, or the treasurer and the manager.
The amount of the bond is to be decided upon by the Board of Directors, based on the initial network of the cooperatives which includes the paid-up capital, membership fees and other assets of the cooperatives at time of registration.
6. Register your cooperative with the Cooperative Development Authority (CDA), you must submit four copies each of the Economic Survey, By-Laws, and Articles of Cooperation and Bond of Accountable Officer(s). Members of a Primary Cooperative
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If you are a Filipino of legal age, you can ba a coop member if you meet the qualifications prescribed by the coop’s by laws. The board of directors act on application for membership. A member may exercise his rights only after having paid the fees for membership and acquired shares in the cooperative.
Two Kinds of Membership in the Cooperative Two Kinds of Members: 1. Regular Member – entitled to all the rights and privileged of membership as stated in the Cooperative Code and the coops by-laws. 2. Associate Member – has no right to vote and to be voted upon and is entitled to such rights and privileged provided by the cooperatives by laws. New Cooperative Law
Cooperative Code of the Philippines (RA 6938) Cooperative Development Authority (RA 6939) Executive Order 95 and 96 were issued by Pres. Fidel Ramos in June 1993, providng for implementation guidelines for some of he provisions of he two vs.cited. Cooperatives Values self-help self-responsibility democracy equality solidarity equity honesty openness social responsibility caring for others Sociology
The scientific and systematic study of society, including patterns of social relations, social stratification, social interaction, and culture. The science of society and he social interactions taking place in that society. The study of human society: its origin, growth, structure, function, customs, traditions, group life and institutions. Sociology is considered a branch of the social sciences. Importance
To obtain factual information about our society and the different aspects of our social life. To enable us to see the connection between our own personal experiences and the social forces in the bigger social world which influence our life Auguste Comte
The term “sociologie” was first used in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes (17481836) in an unpublished manuscript. 257
The term was used again and popularized by the French thinker Auguste Comte in 1838. Comte had earlier used the term ‘social physics’, but that term had been appropriated by others, notably Adolphe Quetelet. Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind—including history, psychology, and economics. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century; he believed all human life had passed through the same distinct historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be ‘queen of the positive sciences’. Thus, Comte has come to be viewed as the “Father of Sociology”. Sociological Scholars
These scholars greatly influenced the founding of sociology: o Auguste Comte o Emile Durkheim – Social Facts (material and non-material) are to be studied empirically, not philosphically, mechanical (social) solidarity and organic solidarity society o Karl Marx – Dialectical Materialism and Economic Determinism o George Herbert Mead – interrelatedness of humans and society (social self) o Vilfredo Pareto o Robert E. Park o Georg Simmel o Ferdinand Tonnies – Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft o Max Weber – Bureaucratization as ideal type of Verstehen Scope and Topics of Sociology
Sociologist study society and social action by examining the groups and social institutions people form, as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the social interactions of people and groups, trace the origin and growth of social processes, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members and vice versa. Sociologist research macro-structures and processes that organize or affect society, such as, but not limited to, race or ethnicity, gender, globalization, and social class stratification. They study institutions such as the family and social processes that represent deviation from, or the breakdown of, social structures, including crime and divorce. And, they research micro-processes suchas intepersonal interactions and the socialization of individuals. Sociologists are also concerned with the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person’s daily life. Sociologists study the many dimensions of society.
Three Basic Theoretical Approaches: The structural-functional approach The social-conflict approach The symbolic-interaction approach Sociological Paradigm
Specific ‘points of view’ used by social scientists in social research. 258
Sociological paradigms are particular paradigms that emply the sociological perspective and the sociological imagination. A sociological paradigm usually refers to the briad schools of thought in sociology that encompass multiple theories from the same perspective. These include: o Conflict Paradigm – focuses on the ability of some groups to dominate others, or resistance to such domination, including Marxism. Feminism – focuses on how male dominance of society has shaped social life. o Functionalism – also known as a social system paradigm, examines what functions the various elements of a social system perform in regard to the entire system. o Interactionism – believes that meaning is produced through the interactions of individuals. o Darwinism Paradigms – also known as the evolutionary paradigm, sees a progressive evolution in social life. o Positivism Paradigm – Social Positivist believe that social processes should be studied in terms of cause and effect using the scientific method. Sociological Research
The basic goal of sociological research is to understand the social world in its many forms. Quantitative methods and qualitative methods are two main types of sociological research methods. Sociologists often use quantitative methods—such as social statistics or network analysis—to investigate the structure of a social process or describe patterns in social relationships. Sociologists also often use qualitative method—such as focused interviews, group discussions and ethnographic methods—to investigate social processes. Sociologists also use applied research method such as evaluation research and assessment. Society and Culture Society
A system of interacting individuals and interrelate groups sharing a common culture and territory A group of people living together in a social system of long established relationship, recognizing and following a certain way of life
Two Types of Society Non-industrial Industr Social Structure The patterned and recurrent social relationship among persons in organized collectivities Forms of Social Structure Primary group structures – families, friendship groups and work groups Purposely organized structures – voluntary organizations and associations Territorial structures – city, community, neighborhood Latent structures – sex or racial categories Social Groups & Social Organizations Social Groups
Primary group – family and friendship group considered the building blocks of the larger society 259
Secondary group – groups where interaction among members are impersonal, business like. Focus of the group is on development of skills and specialized know how. Gemeinschaft & Gessellschaft (Ferdinand Toennies) Gemeinschaft
A community of intimate private and exclusive living and familialism. Maybe likend to our tribal goup, fishing villages, agricultural village Gessellschaft Large secondary group where there is division of labor, specialization, functional interdependence In-group and Out-group
Based on sense of belonging. These are not actual groups but a kind of relationship exist in the mined. The used of “we” (in-group) and “they” (out-group) defines this grouping. Informal and Formal Groups Based on form of organization Informal group – arises spontaneously our of interaction Formal group – also called social organization Formal organizations are necessary in industrialized complex societies. Goals of formal organizations are for: profit the spiritual needs of people education workers benefits service to the poor Bureaucracy
The administrative machinery of a formal organization or social organization which is aimed to enable members to meet their goals. Socialization Process through which a person acquires the skills and behavios necessary for social living. Elements of Socialization 1. Child’s culture 2. Biological inheritance 3. Child’s interaction Family – Most important socializing agent School – Transmitter of culture Language – An important tool in socialization Social Order – Means by which people fill their expected role Status The position a person occupies in society by virtue of age, birth, marriage, occupation or achievement Ascribed status 260
Position assigned to the individual Achieved status Acquired through competition Agencies of Socialization Family Peer group Church School Mass media Work place Social Interaction Refers to the various actions and interactions of individual in a social situation. Social Process
Cooperation – people work together for a common good o Assimilation – blending/fusing two cultures o Acculturation – adaptation of culture upon contact o Amalgamation – brought about by intermarriage Competition and Conflict Culture
From the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning “to cultivate” Refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such acitivities significance and importance. Cultures can be “understood as systems of symbols and meaning that even their creators contest, that lack fixed boundaries, that are constantly in flux, and that interact and compete with one another”. Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population that are passed down from generation to generation. “the way of life for an entire society” Components of Culture
Non-material culture o Social Norms – rules or expectation that define what is acceptable or required in a social situation folkways – commonly known as customs, traditions and conventions of society mores – “a way of behaving,” “a custom as determined by usage or practice and not by law” laws – formalized norms enacted by people who are vested by political and legal authorities designated by the government o Values – abstract standards that persist overtime and serve as guides to what is right and proper for people in society o Knowlegde – the total range of what has been learned or perceived as true. This could be natural, supernatural, and magic knowlegde. Material culture (products of technology) o Artifacts: simple tools to computer Culture Within A Society
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Large societies often have subcultures, or groups of people with distinct sets of behavior and beliefs that differentiate them from a larger culture of which they are a part. The subculture may be distinctive because of the age of its members, or by their race, ethnicity, class, or gender. The qualities that determine a subculture as distinct may be aesthetic, religious, occupational, political, sexual, or a combination of these factors. Cultures By Region
Regional cultures of the world occur both by nation and ethnic group and more broadly, by larger regional variations. Similarities in culture often occur in geographically nearby peoples. Many regional cultures has been influenced by contact with others, such as by colonization, trade, migration, mass media, and religion. Culture is dynamic and changes over time. In doing so, cultures absorb external influences and adjust to changing environments and technologies. Thus, culture is dependent on communication. Local cultures change rapidly with new communications and transportation technologies that allow for greater movement of people and ideas between cultures. Cultural Bias
Cultural bias is when someone is biased due to his or her culture. Cultural bias can also relate to a bias that a culture possesses. For instance, a bias against women could be held by a culture who degrades women. Ethnocentrism
The tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture. Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is the most important and/or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups.
Cultural Universal
Is an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures on the planet. Examples of elements that may be considered cultural universal are gender, roles, the incest taboo, religious and healing ritual, mythology, marriage, language, art, music, cooking, games and jokes. The principal cultural universal are: o Food o Water o Clothing o Shelter o Social organization o Family o Communication o Recreation o Arts o Environment o History o Spirituality
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Development of the Filipino Culture
Asian or Oriental Culture o Malayan as the indigenous core with strains of Aeta, Indonesian, Hindu, Arab and Chinese culture Western or Occidental Culture o Spanish – strongly manifested in our religious and cultural orientation o American – manifested in Filipino political orientation Pre-Spanish Settlements
The social unit was the barangay, from the Malay term balangay, meaning a boat. The barangay were generally small. Most villages boasted of only thirty to one hundred houses. Most communities were coastal, near-coastal or riverrine in orientation. This was because the principal sources of protein came from the seas and the rivers, the people relying more on fishing than on hunting for sustenance. Dealing with traders meant coming in contact with Chinese, Arabian and Indian civilizations. Thus, the coastal communities in Manila, Cebu, Jolo, and Butuan attained a higher cultural level. Most of the members of a community were related to one another by blood or marriage. Besides kinship, common economic interests and shared rituals formed the bases for community cohesion. The barangay was a social rather than a political unit, each one a separate entity with only informal contacts with the other villages. Social Hierarchy in Luzon
Based on Spanish records, William Henry Scott concluded that there were three social classes in preSpanish Luzon and Visayas. o Maginoo – highest among all classes This was composed of datus and their families Datu – polotical and economic leader Babaylanes – a Visayan term for spiritual leader, katalonan was the Tagalog counterpart o Maharlika – next to the maginoo class This class was composed of warriors who served as protectors of the barangay from its enemies. The Maharlika did not pay taxes but they were obliged to accompany the datu in times of war. o Timawa – free person During the Spanish period, being timawa meant being free to be exploited and enslaved by the Spaniards. Composed the main bulk of the population. o Slaves – lowest class aliping namamahay – lived in their own houses and was called only by the datu to help in building a house or in farming. aliping saguiguilid – lived in the datu’s house because of a large debt he had incurred.
Social Classes in the Visayas
Datu – highest class o Composed of the political leader, his family and those who belonged to their class. Timawa – belonged to the second class and were known as free people. 263
Oripun – lowest class. They could be bought and sold.
Culture And Civilization of Ancient Societies
Ancient Filipino civilization was reflected in the political system, economy, religion and belief system, system of writing and traditions. o Politics – the political leader in the barangay level was the datu. o Religion – the ancient Filipinos’ religion was called animism. They believed that gods and goddesses inhabit in nature. This religion is also called anitoism. Bathala (Tagalog) Laon (Visayans) Kabunian (Ibalois) o Economy – the artifacts excavated by the archeologists proved that the external trade was alive. Agriculture – Kaingin system – burning of one part of the forest in order to clear the area to be used for planting. o System of writing – the ancient system of writing was called baybayin. Composed of 14 consonants and three vowels. o Residence – houses were built in places where there was steady supply of food. Bahay-kubo – made from nipa and bamboo and had good ventilation. o Belief in After Life – early Filipino believed in the after-life. The afterlife was believed to be a continuation of life on earth, thus valuables were also buried alongside the dead. Manunggul Jar – reflection of this belief
Deviance and Social Control Deviance
The process by which those who violate group norms are identified as norm violators People are often said to have a disorder because their behavior deviates from what their society considers acceptable. What constitutes normality varies somewhat from one culture to another, but all cultures have—such norms. When people violate these standards and expectations, they may be labeled mentally ill (Thomas Szasz) Deviants
People who diverges from group norms while deviates are those who display divergent behavior but are not identified as norm violates. Component of Deviant Behavior
Act or unit of action Actor who exhibits the behavior Social situation Audience of definers of the act
Social Control
Refers to all those attitudes and behaviors originating in the social environment that have the effects or directing or restricting the attitude and behavior of an individual or group. 264
Theories on the Causes of Deviance
Anomie Theory – groups with fewer opportunities to achieve success goals will have greater motivation to violate norms and higher rates of deviance. Subculture Theory – the greater motivation to violate norm will result in different patterns of deviance depending upon the availability of illegitimate opportunities in the neighborhood. Differential Association Theory – specific direction of a person’s motivation and action depends upon frequency and intensity of interaction with others. Labeling Theory – assumes that most people commit deviant acts at one time to another Social Mobility
Refers to movement up or down in social status. This usually involves a change in occupation. This process may be speeded by: o Revising one’s standard of living o Cultivating class-typed modes of behavior o Manipulating associational membership o A strategic marriage Social Stratification
Exists when there is a hierarchy of position with differences in wealth, power and prestige and when there is intergenerational transmission of advantage or disadvantage stemming from one’s location in the hierarchy. o Caste system – made upon religiously sanctioned and hierarchically ranked groupings in which membership is fixed at birth and is permanent. This is found in India where the rank order are: (1) Brahmans; (2) Ksashtriya; (3) Vaishyas; (4) Sudras. Untouchable is considered outcasts. o Social Class System – composed of economic groups that are cased upon similarities in occupation, income and wealth. Social mobility is allowed in this system. o Race and Ethnicity – both passed on from parents to child but race refers to the genetic transmission of physical characteristics and ethnicity refers to socialization into distinct cultural patterns. Nature of formal organization
It is a deliberately constructed social unit with explicitly coordinated activities designed to contribute toward the attainment of a stated goal. o Bureaucracy – where there is a clearly ordered hierarchy of positions or officers; a defined sphere of competence; activities are recorded; positions are filled on the basis of expertise; operation is based upon a system of general rules; and relationship among people within a bureaucratic organization is impersonal. Institutions
Cluster of norms associated with important social activities. o Family – basic social unit which is the source of intimate social relationship and the most effective agent of transmitting culture. o Economic Institutions – is the actual organization and utilization of natural and human resources by a given society at a given time in accordance with their cultural patterns. o Religion – is any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power. o Political Institutions o Educational Institutions
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Values Education, Ethics, & Moral Education Values
Expressions of the ultimate ends, goals or purposes of social action. They are society’s moral imperatives that deals with what ought to be. “A thing has a value when it is perceived as good and desirable.” (DECS) Values are made up of assumptions and beliefs, which our culture endorses as appropriate bases for responses to events, facts, and states. It is our assumptions and beliefs that influence us to see things the way we do (F. Landa Jocano, Filipino Value System). …there is no negative Filipino values. There are only wrong uses of the values. That is why we label as crime the misuse of values or the violation of value principles, particularly the legal ones (F. Landa Jocano) Values are the reason why we see and do things the way we do. They are “the guiding principles in our lives with respect to the personal and the social ends we desire—such as salvation or peace—and with respect to moral conduct and personal competence—such as honesty and imagination” (Kouzes and Posner, 1993).
Forces that Shape Contemporary Filipino Values Foundation of the Filipinos Oriental Nature
Aeta, Indonesian, Malayan, Hindu, Arabian, Chinese Interpersonal and social relationship revolve around blood ties, marriage and ritual kinship Filipinos’ Occidentalism
Spanish influence is manifested in our religious, political, economic, educational life and even in our language, dress and diet. o Emphasis on spiritual aspect had shaped out attitude towards divorce, birth control, fiestas and ceremonies. o Gambling and our aversion to manual labor could be traced to Spain’s inferior regard for us Americanization of Filipinos o Manifested in our political and social outlook. With the introduction of a democratic system of government we become aware of our rights and privileges. The popularization of education gave us the opportunity for social mobility. Japanese Occupation DECS Values Education Program (1988)
This program drew inspiration from 1986 EDSA Revolution and the 1987 Constitution where the vision of a “just and humane society” was emphasized. This vision calls for a shared culture and commonly held values such as “truth, justice, love, equality, and peace.”
Philosophy of Values Education Program
Rational understanding of the Filipino as a human being in society and his or her role in shaping society and the environment. The task of education is to help this human being (Filipino) develop his or her human potential so he or she can contribute to the growth of Philippine culture and must be able to harness human and non-human resources to attain a just and humane society. Core Value 266
Human dignity (the human person is of infinite value) Theories of Values Formation
Psycho-Analytic Theory (Sigmund Freud, 1856-1939) o Suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior. The unconscious is that part of the personality about which a person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes, desires, demands and needs that are hidden, because of their disturbing nature, from conscious awareness. Freud suggested that the unconscious is responsible for a good part of our everyday behavior. Accoring to Freud, one’s personality has three aspects: The id – is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle. The ego – is the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle. The superego – is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong. Behaviorist View (John B. Watson, 1878-1958) o Behaviorism is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior. o Behavior refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism. Watson asserted that psychologist could study anything that people do or say—shopping, playing chess, eating, complimenting a friend—but they could not study scientifically the thoughts, wishes, and feelings that might accompany these behaviors. Social-Cognitive Learning Theorist (Albert Bandura) o “Most human behavior is learned by observation through modeling” (Albert Bandura) o Observational learning occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. This process has been investigated extensively by Albert Bandura. Bandura does not see observational learning as entirely separate from classical and operant conditioning. o Bandura maintains that people’s characteristic patterns of behavior are shaped by the models that they’re exposed to. In observational learning, a model is a person whose behavior is observed by another. At one time or another, everyone serve as a model for others. Bandura’s key point is that many response tendencies are the product of imitation. Confluent Theory – Tracks of Consciousness (Brian Hall) o Acquisition of value is dependent upon and could be limited by one’s level of consciousness (the older one gets, the higher level of consciousness and the wider the range of needs and value options).
Psycho-Social/Epigenetic Theory (Eric Erikson) o Erikson concluded that events in early childhood leave a permanent stamp on adult personality. o Erikson partitioned the life span into eight stages, each characterized by a psychosocial crisis involving transitions in important social relationships. o According to Erikson, personality is shaped by how individuals deal with these psychosocial crises. Each crisis is a potential turning point that can yield different outcomes. o Erikson described the stages in terms of these alternative outcomes, which represent personality traits that people display over the remainder of their lives. o Erikson’s Stage Theory Erikson’s theory of personality development posits that people evolve through eight stages over the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychosocial crisis that involves 267
confronting a fundamental question, such as “Who am I and where am I going?” The stages are described in terms of alternative traits that are potential outcomes from the crises. Development is enhanced when a crisis is resolved in favor of the healthier alternative. Person-Centered Theory (Self-Theory) – (Carl Rogers, 1902-1987) o “It seems to me that at bottom each person is asking, “Who am I, really? How can I get in touch with this real self, underlying all my surface behavior? How can I become myself?” o Rogers (1951) argue that human behavior is governed primarily by each individual’s sense of self, or “self-concept”—which animals presumably lack. o Rogers viewed personality structure in terms of just one construct. He called this construct the self, although it’s more widely known today as the self-concept. A self-concept is a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior. o Both he and Maslow (1954) maintained that to fully understand people’s behavior, psychologist must take into account the fundamental human drive toward personal growth. They asserted that people have a basic need to continue to evolve as human beings and to fulfill their potentials. Humanistic Theory – Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory Maslow proposed that human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs—a systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused. Maslow argued that humans have an innate drive toward personal growth—that is, evolution toward a higher state of being. Thus, he described the needs in the uppermost reaches of his hierarchy as growth needs. These include the needs for knowlegde, understanding, order, and aesthetic beauty. Foremost among them is the need for self actualization, which is the need to fulfill one’s potential. Maslow summarized this concept with a simple statement: “What a man can be, he must be.” According to Maslow, people will be frustrated if they are unable to fully utilize their talents or pursue their true interests. Cognitive Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg) o There exist a structural bases written each person that determine the process of perceiving value. This series of progression depends on the person’s interaction with the environment. Moral reasoning is related to moral behavior. o Kohlberg’s stages of moral development describe the young child as being in the “Premoral Stage” (up to about eight years), which basically means that “the child believes that evil behavior is likely to be punished and good behavior is based on obedience or avoidance of evil implicit in disobedience.” Ethics & Moral Education Ethics
Comes from the Greek word ethos, “usage,” “character,” “custom,” “disposition,” “manners” The analysis of concepts such as “ought,” “should,” “duty,” “moral rules,” “right,” “wrong,” “obligation,” “responsibility,” etc. The inquiry into the nature of morality or moral acts. The search for the morally good life.
Imperatives of Ethics 1. Existence of God or a Supreme Being 268
2. Existence of human freedom 3. Immortality of the soul Philippine History Terms from the Philippine Revolution Cavite Mutiny
Filipino soldiers in the fort of San Felipe in Cavite rose in mutiny under the leadership of Sergeant La Madrid. The cause was the abolition of some privileges of the Filipinos. GOMBURZA were arrested and killed because of the suspicion that they were involved in the said mutiny. El Filibusterismo
Rizal’s second novel, published in 1891 in Belgium, with the financial support of Valentin Ventura, who lent him the money to print the book. Rizal dedicated this book to GOMBURZA, the three martyr-priests. This is a political novel in which Rizal predicted the coming of the revolution. Insulares Spaniards born in the Philippines. Kalayaan Newspaper of the Katipunan, which first came out on January 1896, with Emilio Jacinto as editor. Katipunan
The secret revolutionary movement founded by Andres Bonifacio on July 7, 1892 in Tondo, Manila. It means KATAASTAASAN KAGALANG-GALANG NA KATIPUNAN NANG MGA ANAK NG BAYAN. It laid down three fundamental objectives: Political, Moral and Civic. The political aim consisted in working for the separation of the Philippines from Spain. The moral objective focused on the teaching of good manners, hygiene, good morals and attacking obscurantism, religious, fanatism, and weaknesses of character. The civic aim revolved around the principle of self-help and the defense of the poor and the oppressed. La Liga Filipina
Founded by Rizal on July 3, 1892, in Tondo, Manila, its aims were: o to unite the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and homogenous body; o mutual protection in every want and necessity; o defense against all violence and injustice; o encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce; and o study and application of reforms.
La Solidaridad
Organ of the Reform Movement in Spain, with Graciano Lopez-Jaena as its first editor. Its first issue came out on February 15, 1889. Its aim was to gather, to collect liberal ideas which were daily 269
exposed tin the camp of politics, in the field of science, arts, letters, commerce, agriculture, and industry. Known as Sol to the propagandists, it became the mouthpiece of the Filipinos in Spain. Magdalo
One faction of the Katipunan in Cavite, led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, with headquarters in Kawit, Cavite. Magdiwang The other Katipunan faction in Cavite, led by Mariano Alvarez, with headquarters in Noveleta, Cavite. Noli Me Tangere
Rizal’s masterpiece, published in 1887. This is a sociohistorical novel based on facts that Rizal gathered while in the Philippines. It is a novel, but not fiction. The novel gained popularity immediately, but the Spaniards authorities, especially the friars whom Rizal ridiculed in the novel, prohibited its reading. Pact of Biak-na-Bato
Agreement made between the Filipinos and the Spaniards, mediated by Pedro Paterno, wherein Aguinaldo and his companions would go into voluntary exile in Hong Kong while Governor Gen. Primo de Rivera would pay cash money to the rebels. Palabra de Honor Word of honor, or keeping one’s promises. Peninsulares The Spanish-born residents of the Philippines. Spolarium The most famous painting of Juan Luna. The True Decalogue A political tract written by Apolinario Mabini which became the bible of the Filipino rebels. Thomasites
American teachers who came to the Philippines in 1901 to teach English to the Filipinos. The first batch of these teachers arrived aboard the American ship Thomas, hence, they were called Thomasites. The Philippine National Heroes Dr. Jose Rizal
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The National Hero
Andres Bonifacio
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The Great Plebian and Father of the Katipunan.
General Gregorio del Pilar
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Hero of the Battle of Tirad Pass.
General Emilio Aguinaldo
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President of the First Philippine Republic.
Apolinario Mabini
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Sublime Paralytic and Brains of the Revolution.
GOMBURZA
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Martyred Priests of 1872.
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Trece Martirez Emilio Jacinto
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13 Martyrs from Cavite.
Brains of the Katipunan.
General Antonio Luna
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Cofounder of La Independencia.
Melchora Aquino
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(Tandang Sora) Mother of Balintawak.
Graciano Lopez-Jaena
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Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda Movement.
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Panday Pira Mariano Ponce
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First Filipino Cannon-maker.
Propagandist, Historian, Diplomat and Managing Editor of La Solidaridad. –
Gregoria de Jesus
Lakambini of Katipunan and wife of Andres Bonifacio.
Fernando Ma. Guerrero
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Poet of the Revolution.
Felipe Agoncillo
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Outstanding Diplomat of the First Philippine Republic.
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Rafael Palma
Cofounder of La Independencia and First UP President.
Juan Luna
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Greatest Filipino Painter.
Marcelo H. del Pilar
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Greatest Journalist and Moving Spirit of the Propaganda Movement.
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Leona Florentino Pedro Paterno
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First Filipino Poetess (Ilocos Sur).
Peace of the Revolution.
Isabelo delos Reyes
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Founder of Philippine Socialism.
Artemio Ricarte
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Revolutionary General, known as Viborra.
Jose Palma
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Wrote the Spanish Lyrics of he Philippine National Anthem.
Lakandola
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Chief of Tondo, Friendly to the Spaniards.
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Rajah Soliman Leonor Rivera
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The Last Rajah of Manila.
Cousin and Fiancee of Jose Rizal.
Marcela Mariño Agoncillo
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Maker of the First Filipino Flag.
Galicano Apacible
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One of the Founders of Katipunan.
Jose Ma. Panganiban –
Bicolandia’s Greatest Contribution to the Historic Campaign for Reforms. –
Diego Silang
Maria Josefa Gabriela Silang – –
Lapu-Lapu
Leader of the Ilocano Revolt. Continued the Fight After her Husband’s Death. Chieftain of Mactan Who Killed Magellan. First Filipino Hero.
Francisco Dagohoy
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Epifanio delos Santos –
A Man of Many Talents; the Former Highway 54 is
Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol.
Now Named After him (EDSA). Francisco Balagtas Baltazar– Prince of Tagalog Poets. –
Teresa Magbanua
First Woman Fighter in Panay. Visayan Joan of Arc.
Trinidad Tecson
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Motherof Biak-na-Bato.
Agueda Esteban
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Wife of Artemio Ricarte who carried secret messages about Spanish troops.
Marina Dizon
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Daughter of One of the Trece Martirez.
Gen. Francisco Makabulos
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Leader of the Revolt in Tarlac.
Julian Felipe
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Composer of the Philippine National Anthem.
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Practice Test Part 1 1. All of the following constitute the meaning of political science except: a. A basic knowledge and understanding of the state. b. It is primarily concerned with the association of human beings into a political community. c. Common knowledge every events taking place in the society. d. It deals with the relationship among men and groups which are subject to the control by the state. 2. It refers to the community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control. a. Sovereignty b. Nation c. Citizenship d. State 3. It refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out. a. Government b. Sovereignty c. Constitution d. Laws 4. What are the four elements of state? a. people, territory, sovereignty, government b. people, constitution, territory, government c. government, law, peace, territory d. constitution, people, land, independence 5. What theory asserts that the early states must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and organize government for their common good? a. Necessity Theory b. Devine Right Theory c. Social Contact Theory d. Social Compact Theory 6. Government exists and should continue to exist for the benefit of the people. a. The statement is a general truth. b. The statement is just an assumption. c. The statement is a fallacy. d. There is no basis for judgment. 7. What are the forms of government in which the political power is exercised by a few privilege class. a. Oligarchy and Aristocracy b. Aristocracy and Monarchy c. Theocracy and Fascism d. Democracy and Tyranny 8. The pre-colonial Philippines has no established government. Its villages and settlements were called barangays. a. Only the first statement is true and correct. b. Only the second statement is true and correct. c. Both statements are true and correct. d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect. 9. There were four social classes of people in the pre-colonialbarangays. They were the nobles, freemen, serfs, and the slaves. 273
a. Only the first statement is true and correct. b. Only the second statement is true and correct. c. Both statements are true and correct. d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect. 10. What are the two known written codes during the pre-Spanish era in the Philippines? a. Maragtas and Kalantiaw Codes b. Sumakwil and Sulayman Codes c. Panay and Subanon Codes d. Hammurabi and Ur Nammu Codes 11. Under the Spanish colonial government, who directly governed the Philippines? a. The Governor-General b. The Viceroy of Mexico c. The Royal Audiencia d. The King of Spain 12. What is the first city to be established in 1565 in the Philippines? a. Manila b. Davao c. Cebu d. Iloilo 13.The government which Spain established in the Philippines was defective. It was a government for the Spaniards and not for the Filipinos. a. Only the first statement is true and correct. b. Only the second statement is true and correct. c. Both statements are true and correct. d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect 14. What was the secret society founded in 1896 that precipitated the glorious revolution against the Spaniards. a. The Katipunan b. The Kalahi c. The Biak naBato Republic d. The Ilustrado 15. Arranged the sequence of governments during the revolutionary era: 1. The Dictatorial Government 2. The Revolutionary Government 3.The Biak-na-Bato Republic 4. The First Philippine Republic a. 2 3 1 4 b. 3 1 2 4 c. 4 1 3 2 d. 1 2 3 4 16. Arranged according to its establishment during the American Regime: 1. The Commonwealth Government 2. The Military Government 3. The Civil Government a. 1 2 3 b. 2 3 1 c. 3 2 1 d. 2 1 3 17. What was the civil government established during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines? a. The Japanese Imperial Government b. The Philippine Republic c. The Puppet Government of Japan 274
d. The Philippine Executive Commission 18. The Constitution used by the Philippine government from the commonwealth period until 1973. a. The Malolos Constitution b. The Biak-na-Bato Constitution c. The 1935 Constitution d. The 1901 Constitution 19. What kind of government was installed under the 1973 Constitution under the Marcos regime? a. Modified Presidential system b. Modified Parliamentary system c. Military system d. Bicameral system 20. A de facto government acquires a de jure status when it gains wide acceptance from the people and recognition from the community of nations. a. The statement is true and valid. b. The statement is an assumption. c. The statement is a fallacy. d. The statement is doubtful. 21. It is defined as written instrument by which the fundamental powers of the government are established, limited and defined and by which these powers are distributed among the several departments or branches for their and useful exercise for the benefit of the people. a. Laws b. Statutes c. Constitution d. Ordinances 22. There is no Constitution that is entirely written or unwritten. a. The statement is true and correct. b. The statement is incorrect. c. The statement is partially correct. d. There is no basis to conclude. 23. Requisites of a good written constitution. a. Brief b. Broad c. Definite d. All of the given options 24. Who has the authority to interpret the constitution? a. Private individual b. Courts c. Legislative and Executive departments of the government d. All of the given options 25. “We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty God , in order to build a just and humane society and establish a government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote our common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and the regime of truth, justice, freedom, equality and peace, do ordain and promulgate this Constitution.” What part of Constitution is this? a. General Provision b. Amendments c. Preamble d. National Patrimony
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Part II 1. The problem of scarcity _____. a. arises only in poor countries. b. exists because the price of goods is too high. c. exists because of limited resources. d. will eventually be solve by better planning. 2. “If an individual is to maximize the utility received from the consumption, he or she should spend all available income…” This statement assumes ________. a. that saving is impossible. b. that the individual is not satiated in all goods. c. that no goods are “inferior.” d. both A and B. 3. An individual’s demand curve a. represents the various quantities that the consumer is willing to purchase of a good at various price levels. b. is derived from an individual’s indifference curve map. c. will shift if preferences, price of other goods, or income change. d. all of the above. 4. What is a firm? a. A president, some vice presidents, and some employees b. Any organization that wants to make a profit. c. Any accumulation of productive assets. d. Any organization that turns inputs into outputs 5. If more and more labor is employed while keeping all other inputs constant, the marginal physical productivity of labor _____. a. will eventually increase. b. will eventually decrease. c. will eventually remain constant. d. cannot tell from the information provided. 6. In general, microeconomic theory assumes that the firms attempt to maximize the difference between ______. a. total revenue and accounting costs. b. price and marginal cost. c. total revenues and economic costs. d. economic costs and average cost. 7. In a competitive market, efficient allocation of resources is characterized by ________. a. a price greater than the marginal cost of production. b. the possibility of further mutually beneficial transactions. c. the largest possible sum of consumer and producer surplus.\ d. a value of consumer surplus equal to that of producer surplus. 8. Price controls _______. a. are always popular with consumers because they lower prices. b. create shortages. c. increase producer surplus because firms can now sell a greater quantity of a good at a lower price. d. are necessary to preserve equity. 9. The excess burden of tax is ____. a. The amount of which the price of a good increases b. The loss of consumer and producer surplus that is not transferred elsewhere. c. The amount y which a person’s after-tax income decrease as a result of the new tax. d. The welfare costs to firms forced to leave the market due to an inward shift of the demand curve. 276
10. In the opening of the free trade, if world prices of a good are less than domestic prices of that same good, _________. a. domestic consumers will experience a loss of surplus. b. domestic prices will drop to the world price level. c. all domestic producers of that good will try to find another market because they can’t compete with foreign producers. d. domestic producers will increase the quantity supplied in order to crowd out the foreign produced goods. 11. It states that as the price of the commodities increase the amount of goods the consumer is willing to purchase decrease and as the price of the commodities decrease the willingness of the consumer to buy increases and other factor remain constant. a. Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility b. Law of Gravity c. Law of Supply d. Law of Demand 12. A deliberate attempt to recognize and transform existing agrarian system with the intention of improving the distribution of agricultural incomes and thus fostering rural development. a. Millennium Development Plan c. Water Reform b. Land Reform d. Development Goals 13. What is the process by which the productive capacity of the economy is increased over time to bring about rising levels of national output and income? a. Economic growth c. Economic development b. Industry d. Employment 14. A system whereby the determination of exchange rate is left solely to the market forces. a. Foreign exchange liberalization b. Import liberalization c. Terms of trade d. Foreign investment 15. All are possible results when a high population growth rate continues in the Third World except a. growth of slums b. spread of diseases due to poverty and poor sanitation c. not enough schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, etc. d. increased Gross National Product 16. Which of the following is the nature of power of taxation? a. It is inherent in sovereignty. b. It is legislative in nature. c. It is subject to constitutional and inherent limitations. d. All of the above 17. A kind of tax based on the rate of which decreases as the tax base or bracket increases. a. Progressive c. Regressive b. Graduated d. Proportional 18. Agrarian reform program, Philippine experience is a success. a. The statement is generally true. b. The statement is doubtful. c. The statement is untrue. d. There is no basis to conclude. 19. It is also known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) a. Presidential Decree # 2 b. Presidential Decree # 27 c. Republic Act 6657 d. Republic Act 5766 277
20. The Cooperatives Development Program of the government is designed primarily to support the agrarian reform program. It aims to achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious institutional restraints and practices. a. Only the first statement is true and correct. b. Only the second statement is true and correct. c. Both statements are true and correct. d. Both statements are untrue and incorrect.
ANSWER KEY English 1B 2A 3B 4C 5A 6B 7A 8B 9B 10C
11B 12C 13A 14B 15C 16A 17B 18B 19B 20B
21A 22B 23B 24A 25B 26D 27A 28B 29B 30B
31B 32B 33C 34D 35A 36B 37B 38C 39A 40C
41B 42B 43C 44B 45A 46B 47B 48B 49A 50B
51A 52B 53B 54B 55B 56D 57B 58C 59C 60B
61B 62A 63C 64B 65C 66A 67B 68B 69B 70C
71B 72C 73B 74C 75B 76C 77B 78D 79C 80C
81D 82C 83A 84B 85B 86A 87C 88A 89C 90B
91D 92D 93B 94B 95D 96C 97C 98B 99A 100C
1A 6D 2B 7C 3C 8A 4D 9D 5D 10A Filipino-Part II
11B 12B 13A 14D 15D
16B 17D 18A 19B 20C
21B 22A 23A 24B 25C
26B 27A 28A 29D 30A
31A 32C 33D 34B 35C
36D 37A 38B 39C 40A
41C 42A 43D 44B 45D
46D 47C 48B 49B 50C
51B 52D 53A 54B 55B
1A 6B 2C 7C 3A 8A 4A 9D 5B 10C Filipino- Part III
11C 12A 13C 14A 15A
16A 17A 18D 19C 20B
21A 22B 23C 24D 25C
26B 27A 28D 29C 30B
31C 32B 33D 34C 35B
36C 37D 38A 39A 40C
41A 42B 43C 44B 45B
46C 47C 48B 49B 50C
51B 52B 53C 54C 55A
FILIPINO-Part 1
1I 4C 2E 5B 3J 6D Filipino- Part IV 1K 6C 2G 7J 3A 8B 4D 9I 5D 10H Mathematics
7A 8G 9H
11J 12I 13A 14H 15b
10F 11F 12I
16d 17F 18C 19G 20E
13J 14A 15D
21D 22B 23A 24D 25B
26A 27B 28C 29C 30A
16E 17C 18H
19H 20G 21pa
31ng 32nang 33ng 34raw 35roon
36daw 37din 38rin 39may 40mayroon
278
22na 23na 24na
25pa 26na 27na
41may 42mayroon 43maka-nora 44maka-bansa 45ika-17
28na 29pa 30pa
46kilawa 47dalhan 48dalhin 49walisan 50walisin
1B 2A 3B 4C 5A 6B 7A 8B 9B 10C Science
11B 12C 13A 14B 15C 16A 17B 18B 19B 20B
21A 22B 23B 24A 25B 26B 27A 28B 29B 30B
31B 32B 33C 34D 35A 36B 37B 38C 39A 40C
41B 42B 43C 44B 45D 46B 47B 48B 49A 50B
51A 52B 53B 54B 55B 56D 57B 58C 59C 60B
61B 62A 63C 64B 65C 66C 67B 68B 69B 70C
71B 72C 73B 74C 75B 76C 77B 78D 79C 80C
81D 82C 83A 84B 85B 86A 87C 88A 89C 90B
91D 92D 93B 94B 95D 96C 97C 98B 99A 100C
1D 5A 9A 2C 6D 10D 3C 7A 11A 4B 8B 12C Social Science Part 1
13A 14C 15D 16A
17D 18C 19C 20C
21A 22D 23B 24D
25C 26A 27B 27D
29A 30C 31B 32C
33D 34B 35B 36A
37A 38B 39A 40D
1C 6A 2D 7A 3A 8C 4A 9C 5C 10A Social Science Part 11
11D 12C 13C 14A 15B
16B 17D 18C 19B 20A
1C 2D 3D 4D 5B
11D 12B 13A 14A 15D
16D 17C 18C 19C 20C
6C 7C 8B 9B 10B
279
21C 22A 23D 24D 25C